History of the Golden Horde. Golden Horde - briefly In what year was the formation of the Golden Horde

Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi, Turk. Ulus - "Great State" listen)) is a medieval state in Eurasia.
IN Golden Horde 1224-1266 was in the composition.
IN 1266 under Khan Mengu-Timur Golden Horde gained complete independence, retaining only a formal dependence on the imperial center.
At first 1320s Under Khan Uzbek, Islam became the state religion.
TO middle of the 15th century The Golden Horde broke up into several independent khanates. The central part, nominally continued to be considered the supreme and retained the name “ Big Horde“, ceased to exist at the beginning of the 16th century.

Golden Horde. XIII - XV centuries.

Name " Golden Horde” was first used in 1566 in an essay" Kazan history“When the single state itself no longer existed. Until that time, in all Russian sources, the word “ Horde” used without an adjective “ Golden“. WITH 19th century and the term " Golden Horde” is firmly entrenched in historiography and is used to designate the ulus of Jochi as a whole, or its western part with its capital in Sarai.
In Russian chronicles the word " Horde” meant an army. Its use as a country name becomes constant from the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, until that time the term “ Tatars“. The Chinese called the Mongols " Tatars (tar-tar)“.
The Arab historian Al-Omari, who lived in the first half of the 14th century, defined the borders of the Golden Horde as follows: “ The borders of this state from the side of Jeyhun are Khorezm, Saganak, Sairam, Yarkand, Dzhend, Saray, the city of Madzhar, Azaka-Kaka, Akcha-Kermen, Kafa, Sudak, Saksin, Ukek, Bulgar, the region of Siberia, Ibir, Bashkyrd and Chulyman ...“.

Formation of Ulus Jochi (Golden Horde)

The division of the empire between his sons, brought about by 1224, is considered the occurrence Golden Horde(Ulusa Jochi). After Western campaign (1236-1242 years), headed by the son of Jochi Batu (in the Russian chronicles), the ulus expanded to the west and the Lower Volga region became its center.

IN 1251 In the capital Karakorum, a kurultai took place, where Mongke, the son of Tolui, was proclaimed great khan. , “ elder of the family” (aka), supported Khan Mongke and received full autonomy for his ulus. Opponents of the Jochids and Toluids from the descendants of Chagatai and Ogedei were executed, and the possessions confiscated from them were divided between Möngke and other Chingizids who recognized their authority.

Separation of the Golden Horde from the Mongol Empire

After his death, his son Sartak, who was at that time in Mongolia, at the court of Mongke Khan, was to become the legitimate heir. However, on the way home, the new khan suddenly died. A young son, Ulagchi, was proclaimed the new khan, but he died soon after.
The ruler of the ulus became (1257-1266), brother. Berke converted to Islam in his youth, but this did not lead to the Islamization of large sections of the nomadic population. The adoption of Islam allowed Burke to receive support from Central Asia, to attract educated Muslims to the service. During the reign of Berke, the Horde cities were built up with mosques, minarets, madrasahs, caravanserais. First of all, this refers to Sarai-Bat, the capital of the state, which at that time became known as Sarai-Berke. Highly educated immigrants from Iran and Arab countries began to be appointed to responsible government posts, which caused discontent among the Mongolian and Kypchak nomadic nobility. However, this dissatisfaction has not yet been expressed openly.

During the reign of the grandson of Mengu-Timur (1266-1282), Ulus Jochi became completely independent from the central government. In 1269, at a kurultai in the valley of the Talas River, Mengu-Timur, Borak Khan, Khaidu Khan recognized each other as independent sovereigns and entered into an alliance against the great Khan of the Mongol Empire, Khubilai, in case he tried to challenge their independence.
After the death of Mengu-Timur, a political crisis began in the country, connected with the name of the temnik Nogai. Nogai, one of the descendants, occupied the post of beklyarbek under Mengu-Timur, the second most important in the state. His personal ulus was located in the west of the Golden Horde (near the Danube). Nogai set as his goal the formation of his own state and during the reign of Tuda-Mengu (1282-1287) and Tula-Buga (1287-1291) he managed to subjugate a vast territory along the Danube, Dniester, Uzeu (Dnieper) to his power.
With the direct support of Nogai, Tokhta (1291-1312) was placed on the Sarai throne. At first, the new ruler obeyed his patron in everything, but soon, relying on the steppe aristocracy, he opposed him. The long struggle ended in 1299 with the defeat of Nogai, and the unity of the Golden Horde was again restored.

Rise of the Golden Horde

During the reign of Khan Uzbek (1313-1341) and his son Janibek (1342-1357), the Golden Horde reached its peak. In the early 1320s, Uzbek Khan proclaimed Islam the state religion, threatening "infidels" with physical violence. The rebellions of the emirs who did not want to convert to Islam were brutally suppressed. The reign of Uzbek Khan was distinguished by cruel reprisals. Russian princes, dependent on the khans, before leaving for the capital of the Golden Horde, wrote spiritual wills and paternal instructions to children in case of their death there. Several of them, in fact, were killed. Uzbek Khan built the city of Saray al-Jedid ( new palace), paid much attention to the development of caravan trade. Trade routes have become not only safe, but also well-maintained. The Golden Horde carried on a lively trade with the countries of Western Europe, Asia Minor, Egypt, India, and China. After Uzbek Khan, his son Dzhanibek Khan ascended the throne, whom the Russian chronicles call “ kind “.

"Great trap".

WITH 1359 By 1380 more than 25 khans changed on the throne of the Golden Horde, and many uluses tried to become independent. This time in Russian sources was called " Great zamyatnya“.
IN 1357, even during the life of Janibek Khan, in the Ulus of Shiban, his Khan Ming-Timur was proclaimed. And the murder in 1359 of Khan Berdibek (son of Dzhanibek) put an end to the Batuid dynasty, which caused the appearance of various pretenders to the Sarai throne from among the eastern branches of the Jochids. Taking advantage of the instability of the central government, a number of regions of the Golden Horde for some time, following the Ulus of Shiban, acquired their own khans.
The rights to the Horde throne of the impostor Kulpa were immediately questioned by the son-in-law and at the same time the beklarbek of the murdered khan, the temnik Mamai. As a result, Mamai, who was the grandson of Isatay, an influential emir from the time of Khan Uzbek, created an independent ulus in the western part of the Golden Horde, up to the right bank of the Volga. Not being Genghisides, Mamai did not have the right to the title of khan, therefore he limited himself to the position of beklarbek under the puppet khans from the Batuid clan.
Khans from Ulus Shiban, descendants of Ming-Timur, tried to gain a foothold in Sarai. They did not really succeed, the rulers changed with kaleidoscopic speed. The fate of the khans largely depended on the favor of the merchant elite of the cities of the Volga region, which was not interested in a strong khan's power.
Following the example of Mamai, other descendants of the emirs also showed a desire for independence. Tengiz-Buga, also the grandson of Isatai, tried to create an independent ulus in the Syr Darya. The Jochids, who rebelled against Tengiz-Buga in 1360 and killed him, continued his separatist policy, proclaiming a khan from among themselves.
Salchen, the third grandson of the same Isatai and at the same time the grandson of Khan Dzhanibek, captured Hadji Tarkhan. Hussein-Sufi, the son of Emir Nangudai and the grandson of Khan Uzbek, in 1361 created an independent ulus in Khorezm. In 1362, the Lithuanian prince Olgerd seized lands in the Dnieper basin.
The turmoil in the Golden Horde ended after Genghisid Tokhtamysh, with the support of Emir Tamerlane from Maverannakhr, in 1377-1380 first captured the uluses on the Syrdarya, defeating the sons of Urus Khan, and then the throne in Saray, when Mamai came into direct conflict with the Moscow principality (defeat on Vozha in 1378). Tokhtamysh in 1380 defeated the remnants of the troops gathered by Mamai after the defeat in the Battle of Kulikovo on the Kalka River.

The reign of Tokhtamysh.

During the reign of Tokhtamysh (1380-1395), the unrest ceased and the central government again began to control the entire main territory of the Golden Horde. In 1382, the Khan made a campaign against Moscow and achieved the restoration of tribute payments. After strengthening his position, Tokhtamysh opposed the Central Asian ruler Tamerlane, with whom he had previously maintained allied relations. As a result of a series of devastating campaigns in 1391-1396, Tamerlane defeated the troops of Tokhtamysh on the Terek, captured and destroyed the Volga cities, including Sarai-Berke, plundered the cities of Crimea, etc. The Golden Horde was dealt a blow from which it could no longer recover.

The collapse of the Golden Horde

Since the sixties 14th century, from the time of Great Hush, there were important political changes in the life of the Golden Horde. The gradual disintegration of the state began. The rulers of the remote parts of the ulus acquired actual independence, in particular, in 1361, the Ulus of Orda-Edzhen gained independence. However, until the 1390s, the Golden Horde still remained more or less a single state, but with the defeat in the war with Tamerlane and the ruin of economic centers, the process of disintegration began, accelerating from the 1420s.
In the early 1420s, a Siberian Khanate, in 1428 - Uzbek Khanate, in 1438 Kazan Khanate, in 1441 Crimean Khanate, in the 1440s arose Nogai Horde, in 1465 the Kazakh Khanate.

After the death of Khan Kichi-Mohammed, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state.
The main among the Jochid states formally continued to be considered the Great Horde. In 1480, Akhmat, Khan of the Great Horde, tried to achieve obedience from Ivan III, but this attempt ended unsuccessfully, and Rus' was finally freed from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. At the beginning of 1481, Akhmat was killed during an attack on his headquarters by the Siberian and Nogai cavalry. Under his children, at the beginning of the 16th century, the Great Horde ceased to exist.

Administrative division of the Golden Horde.

According to the traditional structure of nomadic states, the Ulus of Jochi after 1242 was divided into two wings: right (western) and left (eastern). Right wing was considered senior and represented Ulus. The west of the Mongols was designated in white, so Ulus Batu was called White Horde (Ak Orda ). The right wing covered the territory of western Kazakhstan, the Volga region, the North Caucasus, the Don and Dnieper steppes, Crimea. Its center was Sarai-Batu.
Left wing Ulus Jochi was in a subordinate position in relation to the right, and occupied the lands of central Kazakhstan and the valley of the Syrdarya River. The east of the Mongols was indicated in blue, so the left wing was called Blue Horde (Kok Orda ). The center of the left wing was Horde Bazaar. The eldest brother Orda-Edzhen became the khan there.
Wings, in turn, divided into uluses owned by other sons of Jochi. Initially, there were 14 such uluses.

Administrative-territorial reform of Uzbek Khan.

At first, the ulus division was unstable: possessions could be transferred to other persons and change their boundaries. At the beginning of the 14th century, Khan Uzbek carried out a major administrative-territorial reform.
Right wing of Ulus Jochi was divided into 4 large uluses: Barn, Khorezm, Crimea And Desht-i-Kypchak led by ulus emirs appointed by the khan ( ulusbeks). The main ulusbek was beklarbek. The next most important dignitary was vizier. The other two positions were occupied by especially noble or distinguished dignitaries. These four uluses (regions) were divided into 70 small tumens, headed by temniks.
The city became the capital of the Golden Horde Sarai-Batu(near modern Astrakhan). In the first half of the 14th century, the capital was moved to Shed-Berke(founded near modern Volgograd). Under Khan Uzbek, Sarai-Berke was renamed into Saray Al-Jedid.

Army of the Golden Horde.

The overwhelming majority of the Horde army was the cavalry, which used in battle the traditional tactics of fighting with mobile cavalry masses of archers. Its core was heavily armed detachments, consisting of the nobility, the basis of which was the guard of the Horde ruler. In addition to the Golden Horde warriors, the khans recruited soldiers from among the conquered peoples, as well as mercenaries from the Volga region, Crimea and the North Caucasus. The main weapon of the Horde warriors was a bow. Spears were also widespread, used by the Horde during a massive spear strike that followed the first strike with arrows. Of the bladed weapons, broadswords and sabers were the most popular. Crushing weapons were also widespread: maces, six-pointers, chasers, picks, and flails.
Swords were almost universally replaced by sabers. From the end of the 14th century, guns appeared in service. Horde warriors also began to use field fortifications, in particular, large easel shields-chapars. In field combat, they also used some military equipment, in particular, crossbows.

population of the Golden Horde.

The Golden Horde was inhabited by Turkic (Kipchaks, Volga Bulgars, Bashkirs, etc.), Slavic, Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Cheremis, Votyaks, etc.), North Caucasian (Yases, Alans, Cherkasy, etc.) peoples. The small Mongolian elite very quickly assimilated among the local Turkic population. By the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV century. the nomadic population of the Golden Horde was called the ethnonym “ Tatars“.
The ethnogenesis of the Volga, Crimean, Siberian Tatars took place in the Golden Horde. The Turkic population of the eastern wing of the Golden Horde formed the basis of modern Kazakhs, Karakalpaks and Nogais.

Cities and trade.

The total number of Golden Horde cities reaches 150. The major centers of mainly caravan trade were the cities of Sarai-Batu, Sarai-Berke, Uvek, Bulgar, Khadzhi-Tarkhan, Beljamen, Kazan, Dzhuketau, Madzhar, Mokhshi, Azak (Azov), Urgench and others. .
The trading colonies of the Genoese in the Crimea (captainship of Gothia) and at the mouth of the Don were used by the Horde to trade in cloth, fabrics and linen, weapons, women's jewelry, jewelry, precious stones, spices, incense, furs, leather, honey, wax, salt, grain , timber, fish, caviar, olive oil and slaves.
From the Crimean trading cities, trade routes began, leading both to southern Europe and to Central Asia, India and China. Trade routes leading to Central Asia and Iran passed along the Volga. Through the Volgodonsk perevoloka there was a connection with the Don and through it with the Sea of ​​Azov and the Black Sea.
External and domestic trade relations were provided by the issued money of the Golden Horde: silver dirhams, copper pools and sums.

Rulers of the Golden Horde.

In the first period, the rulers of the Golden Horde recognized the supremacy of the great kaana (kagan) of the Mongol Empire.
Khans of the Golden Horde:
Jochi, son of Genghis Khan (1224-1227)
Batu (c. 1208-c. 1255), son of Jochi (1227-c. 1255), orlok (jehangir) Yeke Mongol Ulus (1235-1241)
Sartak, son of Batu (1255/1256)
Ulagchi, son of Batu (or Sartak) (1256-1257) under the regency of Borakchin-Khatun, Batu's widow
Berke, son of Jochi (1257-1266)
Mengu-Timur, son of Tukan, grandson of Batu (1266-1269)
Khans
Mengu-Timur (1269-1282), the first Khan of the Golden Horde, independent of the Mongol Empire
Tuda Mengu (1282-1287)
Tula Buga (1287-1291)
Tokhta (1291-1312)
Uzbek Khan (1313-1341)
Tinibeck (1341-1342)
Janibek (1342-1357)
Berdibek (1357-1359), the last representative of the Batu clan
Kulpa (August 1359-January 1360), impostor, posed as Janibek's son
Nauruz Khan (January-June 1360), impostor, pretended to be Janibek's son
Khizr Khan (June 1360-August 1361), the first representative of the Horde-Ejen family
Timur-Khoja Khan (August-September 1361)
Ordumelik (September-October 1361), the first representative of the Tuka-Timur clan
Kildibek (October 1361-September 1362), impostor, pretended to be Janibek's son
Murad Khan (September 1362-Autumn 1364)
Mir Pulad (autumn 1364-September 1365), the first representative of the Shibana clan
Aziz Sheikh (September 1365-1367)
Abdullah Khan (1367-1368)
Hassan Khan (1368-1369)
Abdullah Khan (1369-1370)
Muhammad Bulak Khan (1370-1372), under the regency of Tulunbek Khanum
Urus Khan (1372-1374)
Circassian Khan (1374-early 1375)
Muhammad Bulak Khan (beginning 1375-June 1375)
Urus Khan (June-July 1375)
Muhammad Bulak Khan (July 1375-late 1375)
Kaganbek (Aibek Khan) (late 1375-1377)
Arabshah (Kary Khan) (1377-1380)
Tokhtamysh (1380-1395)
Timur Kutlug (1395-1399)
Shadibek (1399-1407)
Pulad Khan (1407-1411)
Timur Khan (1411-1412)
Jalal ad-Din Khan (1412-1413)
Kerimberdy (1413-1414)
Kepek (1414)
Chocre (1414-1416)
Jabbar-Berdi (1416-1417)
Dervish Khan (1417-1419)
Kadyr-Berdi (1419)
Haji Muhammad (1419)
Ulu Muhammad (1419-1423)
Barak Khan (1423-1426)
Ulu Muhammad (1426-1427)
Barak Khan (1427-1428)
Ulu Muhammad (1428)
Kichi-Mohammed (1428)
Ulu Muhammad (1428-1432)
Kichi-Mohammed (1432-1459)

Beklarbeki:
Nogai, great-grandson of Jochi, beklarbek (1256-1267, 1280-1300)
Iksar (Ilbasar), son of Tokhta, beklarbek (1299/1300-1309/1310)
Kutlug-Timur, beklyarbek (about 1309/1310-1321/1322)
Alau, beklarbek Janibek
Mamai, beklarbek (1357-1359, 1363-1364, 1367-1369, 1370-1372, 1377-1380)
Edigei, son of Mangyt Baltychak-bek, beklyarbek (1395-1419)
Mansur-biy, son of Yedigey, beklyarbek (1419)
Naurus-biy, beklyarbek under Ulug-Mukhammed and Kichi-Muhammed.

The Golden Horde was formed in the Middle Ages, and it was a really powerful state. Many countries tried to maintain good relations with him. Cattle breeding became the main occupation of the Mongols, and they knew nothing about the development of agriculture. They were fascinated by the art of war, which is why they were excellent riders. It should be especially noted that the Mongols did not accept weak and cowardly people into their ranks.

In 1206, Genghis Khan becomes a great khan, whose real name is Temujin. He managed to unite many tribes. Possessing a strong military potential, Genghis Khan with his army defeated the Tangut kingdom, Northern China, Korea and Central Asia. Thus began the formation of the Golden Horde.

It lasted for about two hundred years. It was formed on the ruins and was a powerful political formation in Desht-i-Kypchak. The Golden Horde appeared after it died; it was the heir to the empires of nomadic tribes in the Middle Ages. The goal set by the formation of the Golden Horde was to take possession of one branch (northern) of the Great Silk Road.

Eastern sources say that in 1230 a large detachment, consisting of 30 thousand Mongols, appeared in the Caspian steppes. It was a site of nomadic Polovtsy, they were called Kypchaks. Many thousands went to the West. Along the way, the troops conquered the Volga Bulgars and Bashkirs, and after that they captured the Polovtsian lands.

Genghis Khan assigned Jochi to his eldest son as an ulus (region of the empire) in the Polovtsian lands, who, like his father, died in 1227. A complete victory over these lands was won by the eldest son of Genghis Khan, whose name was Batu. He and his army completely subjugated the Ulus of Jochi and stayed on the Lower Volga in 1242-1243.

During these years it was divided into four destinies. The Golden Horde was the first of these, a state within a state. Each of the four had its own ulus: Kulagu (this included the territory of the Caucasus, the Persian Gulf and the territory of the Arabs); Jagatai (included the area of ​​present-day Kazakhstan and Central Asia); Ogedei (it consisted of Mongolia, Eastern Siberia, Northern China and Transbaikalia) and Jochi (this is the Black Sea and the Volga region). However, the ulus of Ogedei was the main one. In Mongolia, there was the capital of the common Mongol empire - Karakorum. All state events took place here, the leader of the kagan was the main man of the entire united empire.

The Mongolian troops were distinguished by militancy, initially they attacked the Ryazan and Vladimir principalities. Russian cities again turned out to be a target for conquest and enslavement. Only Novgorod survived. In the next two years, the Mongol troops captured all of what was then Rus'. During the fierce hostilities, he lost half of his troops.

The Russian princes were separated at the time of the formation of the Golden Horde and therefore suffered constant defeats. Batu conquered Russian lands and imposed tribute on the local population. Alexander Nevsky was the first who managed to negotiate with the Horde and temporarily suspend hostilities.

In the 60s, there was a war between the uluses, which marked the collapse of the Golden Horde, which the Russian people took advantage of. In 1379, Dmitry Donskoy refused to pay tribute and killed the Mongol generals. In response, the Mongol Khan Mamai attacked Rus'. It began in which the Russian troops won. Their dependence on the Horde became insignificant and the Mongols troops left Rus'. The collapse of the Golden Horde was completely completed.

The Tatar-Mongol yoke lasted for 240 years and ended with the victory of the Russian people, however, the formation of the Golden Horde can hardly be overestimated. Thanks to the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the Russian principalities began to unite against a common enemy, which strengthened and made the Russian state even more powerful. Historians estimate the formation of the Golden Horde as an important stage for the development of Rus'.

GOLD `HORD`(Altyn Urda) a state in northeastern Eurasia (1269–1502). In Tatar sources - Olug Ulus (Great Power) or Ulus Jochi named after the ancestor of the Jochi dynasty, in Arabic - Desht-i-Kipchak, in Russian - the Horde, the Kingdom of the Tatars, in Latin - Tartaria.

The Golden Horde was formed in 1207-1208 on the basis of the Jochi Ulus - the lands allocated by Genghis Khan to the son of Jochi in the Irtysh region and Sayano-Altai. After the death of Jochi (1227), by the decision of the all-Mongol kurultai (1229 and 1235), Khan Batu (son of Jochi) was proclaimed the ruler of the ulus. During the Mongol wars, by 1243, the Ulus of Jochi included the territories of Desht-i-Kipchak, Desht-i-Khazar, Volga Bulgaria, as well as Kiev, Chernigov, Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, Galicia-Volyn principalities. By the middle of the XIII century, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Serbia were dependent on the khans of the Golden Horde.

Batu divided the Golden Horde into Ak Orda and Kok Orda, which were divided into left and right wings. They were divided into uluses, tumens (10 thousand), thousands, hundreds and tens. The territory of the Golden Horde was connected by a single transport system - the pit service, which consisted of pits (stations). Batu appointed his elder brother Ordu-ijen as the ruler of the Kok Horde, their other brothers and sons (Berke, Nogai, Tuka (Tukai)-Timur, Shiban) and representatives of the aristocracy received smaller possessions (destinies - il) within these uluses as suyurgals. The uluses were headed by ulus emirs (ulusbeks), at the head of smaller destinies - tumenbashi, minbashi, yozbashi, unbashi. They carried out legal proceedings, organized the collection of taxes, recruited troops and commanded them.

In the late 1250s, the rulers achieved a certain independence from the great kagan of the Mongol Empire, which was reflected in the appearance of the tamga of the Jochi family on the coins of Khan Berke. Khan Mengu-Timur managed to achieve complete independence, as evidenced by the minting of coins with the name of the khan and the kurultai of the khans of the uluses of Jochi, Chagatai and Ogedei in 1269, which demarcated their possessions and legitimized the collapse of the Mongol Empire. At the end of the 13th century, 2 political centers were formed in Ak Orda: Beklyaribek Nogai ruled in the Northern Black Sea region, Khan Tokta ruled in the Volga region. The confrontation between these centers ended at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries with the victory of Tokta over Nogay. The supreme power in the Golden Horde belonged to the Jochids: until 1360, the khans were the descendants of Batu, then - Tuka-Timur (with interruptions, until 1502) and the Shibanids in the territory of the Kok Horde and Central Asia. Since 1313, only Muslim Jochids could be khans of the Golden Horde. Formally, the khans were sovereign monarchs, their name was mentioned in Friday and holiday prayers (khutba), they sealed the laws with their seal. The executive body of power was the divan, which consisted of representatives of the highest nobility of the four ruling families - Shirin, Baryn, Argyn, Kipchak. The head of the divan was the vizier - olug karachibek, he led the fiscal system in the country, was in charge of legal proceedings, internal and foreign affairs, and was the commander-in-chief of the country's troops. At the kurultai (congress), the most important state issues were resolved by representatives of 70 noble emirs.

The highest stratum of the aristocracy consisted of karachibeks and ulusbeks, the sons and closest relatives of the khan - oglans, sultans, then - emirs and beks; military class (chivalry) - Bahadurs (batyrs) and Cossacks. On the ground, taxes were collected by officials - darugabeks. The main population consisted of a tax-paying estate - kara halyk, who paid taxes to the state or feudal lord: yasak (main tax), various types of land and income taxes, duties, as well as various duties, such as supplying provisions to the troops and authorities (barn is small), yamskaya (ilchi-kunak). There were also a number of taxes on Muslims in favor of the clergy - gosher and zakat, as well as tribute and taxes on the conquered peoples and the non-Muslim population of the Golden Horde (jizya).

The army of the Golden Horde consisted of personal detachments of the Khan and the nobility, military formations and militias of various uluses and cities, as well as allied troops (up to 250 thousand people in total). The nobility made up the cadres of military leaders and professional soldiers - heavily armed cavalrymen (up to 50 thousand people). The infantry played a supporting role in the battle. Firearms were used in the defense of the fortifications. The basis of field combat tactics was the massive use of heavily armed cavalry. Her attacks alternated with the actions of horse archers, who hit the enemy from a distance. Strategic and operational maneuvers, envelopment, flank strikes and ambushes were used. The warriors were unpretentious, the army was distinguished by maneuverability, speed and could make long transitions without losing combat capability.

Major battles:

• the battle near the city of Pereyaslavl of Emir Nevryuy with Vladimir Prince Andrei Yaroslavich (1252);
• the capture of the city of Sandomierz by the troops of Bahadur Burundai (1259);
• the battle of Berke on the Terek River with the troops of the Ilkhan ruler of Iran Hulagu (1263);
• the battle of Tokta on the river Kukanlyk with Nogay (1300);
• the capture of the city of Tabriz by the troops of Khan Janibek (1358);
• the siege of the city of Bolgar by the troops of Beklyaribek Mamai and Moscow Prince Dmitry Donskoy (1376);
• Battle of Kulikovo (1380);
• the capture of Moscow by Khan Toktamysh, beklyaribek Idegey (1382, 1408);
• the battle of Khan Toktamysh with Timur on the Kondurcha River (1391);
• the battle of Khan Toktamysh with Timur on the Terek River (1395);
• the battle of Idegeya with Toktamysh and the Lithuanian prince Vitovt on the Vorskla River (1399);
• Battle of Ulug-Muhammad Khan.

There were more than 30 large cities on the territory of the Golden Horde (including the Middle Volga region - Bolgar, Dzhuketau, Iski-Kazan, Kazan, Kashan, Mukhsha). Over 150 cities and towns were centers of administrative power, crafts, trade, and religious life. The cities were managed by emirs and khakims. The cities were centers of highly developed crafts (iron-making, weapons, leather, woodworking), glass-making, pottery, jewelry production and trade with the countries of Europe, the Near and Middle East flourished. Transit trade with Western Europe in silk, spices from China and India was developed. Bread, furs, leather goods, captives, and cattle were exported from the Golden Horde. Luxury goods, expensive weapons, fabrics, and spices were imported. In many cities there were large trade and craft communities of Jews, Armenians (for example, the Armenian colony in Bolgar), Greeks and Italians. The Italian city-republics had their trading colonies in the Northern Black Sea region (Genoese in Cafe, Sudak, Venetian in Azak).

The capital of the Golden Horde until the 1st third of the 14th century was Saray al-Mahrusa, built under Khan Batu. Inside the Golden Horde settlements, archaeologists have discovered entire handicraft quarters. From the 1st third of the 14th century, Sarai al-Jadid, built under Khan Uzbek, became the capital of the Golden Horde. The main occupation of the population was agriculture, gardening and stall breeding, beekeeping, and fishing. The population supplied food not only to themselves, but also supplied it for export.

The main territory of the Golden Horde is the steppes. The steppe population continued to lead a semi-nomadic life, engaged in cattle breeding (sheep and horse breeding).

For the peoples of the Golden Horde, the official and spoken language was the Turkic language. Later, on its basis, the Turkic literary language was formed - the Volga Turki. It created works of old Tatar literature: “Kitabe Gulistan bit-Turks” by Saif Sarai, “Muhabbat-name” by Khorezmi, “Khosrov va Shirin” by Kutba, “Nahj al-faradis” by Mahmud al-Sarai al-Bulgari. As a literary language, the Volga Turki functioned among the Tatars of Eastern Europe until the middle of the 19th century. Initially, office work and diplomatic correspondence in the Golden Horde were carried out in the Mongolian language, which was supplanted by Turkic in the 2nd half of the 14th century. Arabic (the language of religion, Muslim philosophy and jurisprudence) and Persian (the language of high poetry) were also widespread in the cities.

Initially, the khans of the Golden Horde professed Tengrism and Nestorianism, and among the Turkic-Mongolian aristocracy there were also Muslims and Buddhists. The first khan to convert to Islam was Berke. Then the new religion began to actively spread among the urban population. By that time, the population in the Bulgar principalities already professed Islam.

With the adoption of Islam, there was a consolidation of the aristocracy and the formation of a new ethno-political community - the Tatars, which united the Muslimized nobility. It belonged to the Jochid clan-clan system, was united by the socially prestigious ethnonym "Tatars". By the end of the XIV century, it was widely spread among the population of the whole country. After the collapse of the Golden Horde (1st half of the 15th century), the term "Tatars" denoted the military-service Turkic-Muslim aristocracy.

Islam in the Golden Horde became the state religion in 1313. The head of the clergy could only be a person from the family of Sayyids (descendants of the Prophet Muhammad from his daughter Fatima and Caliph Ali). The Muslim clergy consisted of muftis, muhtasibs, qadis, sheikhs, sheikh-masheikhs (sheikhs over sheikhs), mullahs, imams, hafiz, who carried out worship and legal proceedings in civil cases throughout the country. Schools (mektebs and madrasahs) were also under the jurisdiction of the clergy. In total, more than 10 remains of mosques and minarets are known on the territory of the Golden Horde (including in the Bolgar and Yelabuga settlements), as well as madrasahs, hospitals and khanakas (abodes) attached to them. An important role in the spread of Islam in the Volga region was played by Sufi tarikats (orders) (for example, Kubraviya, Yasaviya), which had their own mosques and khanaka. The state policy in the field of religion in the Golden Horde was based on the principle of religious tolerance. Numerous letters of khans to the Russian patriarchs on the release of all types of taxes and taxes have been preserved. Relations were also built with Armenian Christians, Catholics and Jews.

The Golden Horde was a country of developed culture. Thanks to an extensive system of mektebs and madrasahs, the population of the country was taught to read and write and the canons of Islam. At the madrasah there were rich libraries and schools of calligraphers, copyists of books. Objects with inscriptions and epitaphs testify to the literacy and culture of the population. There was an official historiography, preserved in the writings of "Chingiz-name", "Jami at-tavarih" by Rashidaddin, in the genealogies of rulers and folklore tradition. Construction and architecture reached a high level, including white-stone and brick construction, stone carving.

In 1243, the Horde army undertook a campaign against the Galicia-Volyn principality, after which Prince Daniel Romanovich recognized himself as a vassal of Batu. Nogai's campaigns (1275, 1277, 1280, 1286, 1287) aimed to impose tribute and military indemnity on the Balkan countries and Poland. Nogai's campaign against Byzantium ended with the siege of Constantinople, the ruin of Bulgaria and its inclusion in the sphere of influence of the Golden Horde (1269). The war that broke out in 1262 in Ciscaucasia and Transcaucasia continued intermittently until the 1390s. The heyday of the Golden Horde fell on the reign of the khans Uzbek and Dzhanibek. Islam was proclaimed the official religion (1313). During this period, on the crest of economic growth, a unified system of empire management, a huge army, and borders were stabilized.

In the middle of the XIV century, after a 20-year internecine war (“Great Zamyatnia”), natural disasters (drought, flooding of the Lower Volga region with the waters of the Caspian Sea), plague epidemics began the disintegration of a single state. In 1380, Toktamysh conquered the Khan's throne, defeated Mamai. The defeats of Toktamysh in the wars with Timur (1388–89, 1391, 1395) led to ruin. The reign of Idegei was marked by successes (the defeat of the troops of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vitovt and Toktamysh on the Vorskla River in 1399, the campaign against Maverannahr in 1405, the siege of Moscow in 1408). After the death of Idegei in the battle with the sons of Toktamysh (1419), the unified empire collapsed, and Tatar states arose on the territory of the Golden Horde: the Siberian Khanate (1420), the Crimean Khanate (1428), the Kazan Khanate (1438). The last fragment of the Golden Horde in the Lower Volga region was the Great Horde, which collapsed in 1502 as a result of the defeat of the descendants of Khan Akhmad by the troops of the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray.

The Golden Horde played a big role in the formation of the Tatar nation, as well as in the development of the Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Nogais, Uzbeks (Turks of Maverannahr). The Golden Horde traditions played a huge role in the formation of Muscovite Rus, especially in the organization of state power, the system of government and military affairs.

Khans of Ulus Jochi and the Golden Horde:

• Jochi (1208-1227)
• Batu (1227-1256)
• Sartak (1256)
• Ulakchi (1256)
• Berke (1256–1266)
• Mengu-Timur (1266-1282)
• Tuda Mengu (1282–1287)
• Tula-Buga (1287–1291)
• Tokta (1291–1313)
• Uzbek (1313–1342)
• Tinibeck (1342)
• Janibek (1342–1357)
• Berdibek (1357-1339).

Khans of the period of the "Great Memory".

Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi, Turk. Ulu Ulus- "Great State") - a medieval state in Eurasia.

Title and borders

Name "Golden Horde" was first used in Rus' in 1566 in the historical and journalistic work "Kazan History", when the state itself no longer existed. Until that time, in all Russian sources, the word " Horde" used without adjective " Golden". Since the 19th century, the term has been firmly entrenched in historiography and is used to refer to the Jochi ulus as a whole, or (depending on the context) its western part with its capital in Sarai.

In the actual Golden Horde and eastern (Arab-Persian) sources, the state did not have a single name. It is usually referred to as " ulus”, with the addition of some epithet ( "Ulug ulus") or the ruler's name ( Ulus Berke), and not necessarily acting, but also reigning earlier (" Uzbek, ruler of the Berke countries», « ambassadors of Tokhtamyshkhan, sovereign of the Uzbek land"). Along with this, the old geographical term was often used in the Arab-Persian sources Desht-i-Kipchak. Word " horde” in the same sources denoted the headquarters (mobile camp) of the ruler (examples of its use in the meaning of “country” begin to be found only from the 15th century). The combination " Golden Horde" (Persian آلتان اوردون ‎, Urdu-i Zarrin) meaning " golden parade tent” is found in the description of an Arab traveler in relation to the residence of Khan Uzbek. In Russian chronicles, the word "horde" usually meant an army. Its use as the name of the country becomes constant from the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries, until that time the term "Tatars" was used as the name. In Western European sources, the names " Komanov country», « Comania" or " power of the Tatars», « the land of the Tatars», « Tataria» . The Chinese called the Mongols " Tatars"(tar-tar).

The Arab historian Al-Omari, who lived in the first half of the 14th century, defined the boundaries of the Horde as follows:

Story

Formation of Ulus Jochi (Golden Horde)

The division of the empire by Genghis Khan between his sons, carried out by 1224, can be considered the emergence of the Ulus of Jochi. After the Western campaign (1236-1242), led by the son of Jochi Batu (in the Russian chronicles Batu), the ulus expanded to the west and the Lower Volga region became its center. In 1251, a kurultai took place in the capital of the Mongol Empire, Karakorum, where Mongke, the son of Tolui, was proclaimed the great khan. Batu, "senior of the family" ( aka), supported Möngke, probably hoping to gain full autonomy for his ulus. Opponents of the Jochids and Toluids from the descendants of Chagatai and Ogedei were executed, and the possessions confiscated from them were divided among Mongke, Batu and other Chingizids, who recognized their power.

Separation from the Mongol Empire

With the direct support of Nogai, Tokhta (1291-1312) was placed on the Sarai throne. At first, the new ruler obeyed his patron in everything, but soon, relying on the steppe aristocracy, he opposed him. The long struggle ended in 1299 with the defeat of Nogai, and the unity of the Golden Horde was again restored.

Rise of the Golden Horde

During the reign of Khan Uzbek (1313-1341) and his son Janibek (1342-1357), the Golden Horde reached its peak. In the early 1320s, Uzbek Khan proclaimed Islam the state religion, threatening "infidels" with physical violence. The rebellions of the emirs who did not want to convert to Islam were brutally suppressed. The time of his khanate was distinguished by severe punishment. Russian princes, going to the capital of the Golden Horde, wrote spiritual testaments and paternal instructions to children, in case of their death there. Several of them, in fact, were killed. Uzbek built the city of Saray al-Jedid ("New Palace"), paid much attention to the development of caravan trade. Trade routes have become not only safe, but also well-maintained. The Horde conducted a brisk trade with the countries of Western Europe, Asia Minor, Egypt, India, China. After Uzbek, his son Dzhanibek, whom the Russian chronicles call "good" came to the throne of the khanate.

"Great Jam"

From 1359 to 1380, more than 25 khans changed on the throne of the Golden Horde, and many uluses tried to become independent. This time in Russian sources was called the "Great Zamyatnya".

Even during the life of Khan Dzhanibek (no later than 1357), his Khan Ming-Timur was proclaimed in the Ulus of Shiban. And the murder in 1359 of Khan Berdibek (son of Dzhanibek) put an end to the Batuid dynasty, which caused the appearance of various pretenders to the Sarai throne from among the eastern branches of the Jochids. Taking advantage of the instability of the central government, a number of regions of the Horde for some time, following the Ulus of Shiban, acquired their own khans.

The rights to the Horde throne of the impostor Kulpa were immediately questioned by the son-in-law and at the same time the beklarbek of the murdered khan, the temnik Mamai. As a result, Mamai, who was the grandson of Isatay, an influential emir from the time of Khan Uzbek, created an independent ulus in the western part of the Horde, up to the right bank of the Volga. Not being Genghisides, Mamai did not have the right to the title of khan, therefore he limited himself to the position of beklarbek under the puppet khans from the Batuid clan.

Khans from Ulus Shiban, descendants of Ming-Timur, tried to gain a foothold in Sarai. They did not really succeed, the rulers changed with kaleidoscopic speed. The fate of the khans largely depended on the favor of the merchant elite of the cities of the Volga region, which was not interested in a strong khan's power.

Following the example of Mamai, other descendants of the emirs also showed a desire for independence. Tengiz-Buga, also the grandson of Isatai, tried to create an independent ulus on the Syr Darya. The Jochids, who rebelled against Tengiz-Buga in 1360 and killed him, continued his separatist policy, proclaiming a khan from among themselves.

Salchen, the third grandson of the same Isatai and at the same time the grandson of Khan Dzhanibek, captured Hadji Tarkhan. Hussein-Sufi, son of Emir Nangudai and grandson of Khan Uzbek, created an independent ulus in Khorezm in 1361. In 1362, the Lithuanian prince Olgerd seized lands in the Dnieper basin.

The turmoil in the Golden Horde ended after Genghisid Tokhtamysh, with the support of Emir Tamerlane from Maverannakhr, in 1377-1380 first captured the uluses on the Syr Darya, defeating the sons of Urus Khan, and then the throne in Saray, when Mamai came into direct conflict with the Moscow principality (defeat on Vozha (1378)). Tokhtamysh in 1380 defeated the remnants of the troops gathered by Mamai after the defeat in the Battle of Kulikovo on the Kalka River.

Tokhtamysh's reign

During the reign of Tokhtamysh (1380-1395), the unrest ceased and the central government again began to control the entire main territory of the Golden Horde. In 1382, the Khan made a campaign against Moscow and achieved the restoration of tribute payments. After strengthening his position, Tokhtamysh opposed the Central Asian ruler Tamerlane, with whom he had previously maintained allied relations. As a result of a series of devastating campaigns of 1391-1396, Tamerlane defeated the troops of Tokhtamysh on the Terek, captured and destroyed the Volga cities, including Sarai-Berke, plundered the cities of Crimea, etc. The Golden Horde was dealt a blow from which it could no longer recover.

The collapse of the Golden Horde

Since the sixties of the XIV century, since the time of the Great Memory, there have been important political changes in the life of the Golden Horde. The gradual disintegration of the state began. The rulers of the remote parts of the ulus acquired de facto independence, in particular, in 1361, the Ulus Orda-Ejen gained independence. However, until the 1390s, the Golden Horde still remained more or less a single state, but with the defeat in the war with Tamerlane and the ruin of economic centers, the process of disintegration began, accelerating from the 1420s.

In the early 1420s, the Siberian Khanate was formed, in 1428 the Uzbek Khanate, then the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1441) Khanates, the Nogai Horde (1440s) and the Kazakh Khanate (1465) arose. After the death of Khan Kichi-Mohammed, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state.

The main among the Jochid states formally continued to be considered the Great Horde. In 1480, Akhmat, Khan of the Great Horde, tried to achieve obedience from Ivan III, but this attempt ended unsuccessfully, and Rus' finally freed itself from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. At the beginning of 1481, Akhmat was killed during an attack on his headquarters by the Siberian and Nogai cavalry. Under his children, at the beginning of the 16th century, the Great Horde ceased to exist.

State structure and administrative division

According to the traditional structure of nomadic states, after 1242 Ulus Jochi was divided into two wings: right (western) and left (eastern). The eldest was considered the right wing, which was Ulus Batu. The west of the Mongols was designated in white, so the Batu Ulus was called the White Horde (Ak Orda). The right wing covered the territory of western Kazakhstan, the Volga region, the North Caucasus, the Don and Dnieper steppes, Crimea. Its center was Sarai-Batu.

The wings, in turn, were divided into uluses owned by other sons of Jochi. Initially, there were about 14 such uluses. Plano Carpini, who made a trip to the east in 1246-1247, singles out the following leaders in the Horde, indicating the places of nomads: Kuremsu on the western bank of the Dnieper, Mautsi on the east, Kartan, married to Batu's sister, in the Don steppes, Batu himself on the Volga and two thousand people along the two banks of the Dzhaik (Ural River). Berke held lands in the North Caucasus, but in 1254 Batu took these possessions for himself, ordering Berke to move east of the Volga.

At first, the ulus division was unstable: possessions could be transferred to other persons and change their boundaries. At the beginning of the XIV century, Khan Uzbek carried out a major administrative-territorial reform, according to which the right wing of the Juchi Ulus was divided into 4 large uluses: Saray, Khorezm, Crimea and Desht-i-Kypchak, headed by ulus emirs (ulusbeks) appointed by the khan. The main ulusbek was beklyarbek. The next most important dignitary was the vizier. The other two positions were occupied by especially noble or distinguished dignitaries. These four regions were divided into 70 small possessions (tumens), headed by temniks.

Uluses were divided into smaller possessions, also called uluses. The latter were administrative-territorial units of various sizes, which depended on the rank of the owner (temnik, thousand's manager, centurion, foreman).

The city of Sarai-Batu (near modern Astrakhan) became the capital of the Golden Horde under Batu; in the first half of the 14th century, the capital was moved to Saray-Berke (founded by Khan Berke (1255-1266) near present-day Volgograd). Under Khan Uzbek, Sarai-Berke was renamed into Sarai Al-Dzhedid.

Army

The overwhelming majority of the Horde army was the cavalry, which used the traditional tactics of fighting with mobile cavalry masses of archers in battle. Its core was heavily armed detachments, consisting of the nobility, the basis of which was the guard of the Horde ruler. In addition to the Golden Horde warriors, the khans recruited soldiers from among the conquered peoples, as well as mercenaries from the Volga region, Crimea and the North Caucasus. The main weapon of the Horde warriors was the bow, which the Horde used with great skill. Spears were also widespread, used by the Horde during a massive spear strike that followed the first strike with arrows. Of the bladed weapons, broadswords and sabers were the most popular. Crushing weapons were also widespread: maces, six-pointers, chasers, cleavers, flails.

Among the Horde warriors, lamellar and laminar metal shells were common, from the 14th century - chain mail and ring-plate armor. The most common armor was khatangu-degel, reinforced from the inside with metal plates (kuyak). Despite this, the Horde continued to use lamellar shells. The Mongols also used brigantine-type armor. Mirrors, necklaces, bracers and greaves became widespread. Swords were almost universally replaced by sabers. From the end of the 14th century, guns appeared in service. Horde warriors also began to use field fortifications, in particular, large easel shields - chaparras. In field combat, they also used some military technical means, in particular, crossbows.

Population

Turkic (Kipchaks, Volga Bulgars, Khorezmians, Bashkirs, etc.), Slavic, Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Cheremis, Votyaks, etc.), North Caucasian (Yases, Alans, Cherkasy, etc.) peoples lived in the Golden Horde. The small Mongolian elite very quickly assimilated among the local Turkic population. By the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV century. the nomadic population of the Golden Horde was designated by the ethnonym "Tatars".

The ethnogenesis of the Volga, Crimean, Siberian Tatars took place in the Golden Horde. The Turkic population of the eastern wing of the Golden Horde formed the basis of the modern Kazakhs, Karakalpaks and Nogays.

Cities and trade

On the lands from the Danube to the Irtysh, 110 urban centers with an oriental material culture have been archaeologically recorded, which flourished in the first half of the 14th century. The total number of Golden Horde cities, apparently, approached 150. The major centers of mainly caravan trade were the cities of Sarai-Batu, Sarai-Berke, Uvek, Bulgar, Khadzhi-Tarkhan, Beljamen, Kazan, Dzhuketau, Madzhar, Mokhshi, Azak ( Azov), Urgench and others.

The trading colonies of the Genoese in the Crimea (captainship of Gothia) and at the mouth of the Don were used by the Horde to trade in cloth, fabrics and linen, weapons, women's jewelry, jewelry, precious stones, spices, incense, furs, leather, honey, wax, salt, grain , forest, fish, caviar, olive oil and slaves.

From the Crimean trading cities, trade routes began, leading both to southern Europe, and to Central Asia, India and China. Trade routes leading to Central Asia and Iran followed the Volga. Through the Volgodonsk perevoloka there was a connection with the Don and through it with the Sea of ​​Azov and the Black Sea.

Foreign and domestic trade relations were provided by the issued money of the Golden Horde: silver dirhems, copper puls and sums.

Rulers

In the first period, the rulers of the Golden Horde recognized the supremacy of the great kaan of the Mongol Empire.

Khans

1. Munke-Timur (1269-1282), the first Khan of the Golden Horde, independent of the Mongol Empire
2. Tuda Mengu (1282-1287)
3. Tula Buga (1287-1291)
4. Tokhta (1291-1312)
5. Uzbek Khan (1313-1341)
6. Tinibeck (1341-1342)
7. Janibek (1342-1357)
8. Berdibek (1357-1359), the last representative of the Batu clan
9. Kulpa (August 1359-January 1360)
10. Nauruz Khan (January-June 1360)
11. Khizr Khan (June 1360-August 1361), the first representative of the Horde-Ejen family
12. Timur-Khoja Khan (August-September 1361)
13. Ordumelik (September-October 1361), the first representative of the Tuka-Timur clan
14. Kildibek (October 1361-September 1362)
15. Murad Khan (September 1362-Autumn 1364)
16. Mir Pulad (autumn 1364-September 1365), the first representative of the Shibana clan
17. Aziz Sheikh (September 1365-1367)
18. Abdullah Khan (1367-1368)
19. Hassan Khan, (1368-1369)
20. Abdullah Khan (1369-1370)
21. Muhammad Bulak Khan (1370-1372), under the regency of Tulunbek Khanum
22. Urus Khan (1372-1374)
23. Circassian Khan (1374-early 1375)
24. Muhammad Bulak Khan (beginning 1375-June 1375)
25. Urus Khan (June-July 1375)
26. Muhammad Bulak Khan (July 1375-late 1375)
27. Kaganbek (Aibek Khan) (late 1375-1377)
28. Arabshah (Kary Khan) (1377-1380)
29. Tokhtamysh (1380-1395)
30. Timur Kutlug (1395-1399)
31. Shadibek (1399-1408)
32. Pulad Khan (1407-1411)
33. Timur Khan (1411-1412)
34. Jalal ad-Din Khan (1412-1413)
35. Kerimberdy (1413-1414)
36. Chocre (1414-1416)
37. Jabbar-Berdi (1416-1417)
38. Dervish Khan (1417-1419)
39. Ulu Muhammad (1419-1423)
40. Barak Khan (1423-1426)
41. Ulu Muhammad (1426-1427)
42. Barak Khan (1427-1428)
43. Ulu Muhammad (1428-1432)
44. Kichi-Mohammed (1432-1459)

Beklarbeki

see also

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Notes

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17. Sultanov T. I. .
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29. Sabitov Zh. M.. - S. 45.
30. Karamzin N. M. .
31. Solovyov S. M. .
33. There is a point of view that the division into the White Horde and the Blue Horde applies only to the eastern wing, denoting, respectively, the ulus of the Horde-Ejen and the ulus of Shiban.
34. Guillaume de Rubruk. .
35. Egorov V.L. Historical geography of the Golden Horde in the XIII-XIV centuries. - M .: Nauka, 1985. - S. 163-164.
36. Egorov V.L.// / Ans. editor V. I. Buganov. - M .: Nauka, 1985. - 11,000 copies.
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38. V. L. Egorov. Historical geography of the Golden Horde in the XIII-XIV centuries. Moscow "Nauka" 1985 s - 78, 139
39. Commander-in-Chief of the Army of the Mongol Empire
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Literature

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• Fedorov-Davydov G. A. Social structure of the Golden Horde. - M .: Moscow University Publishing House, 1973.
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• Tulibayeva Zh. M. "Ulus-i arba-yi Chingizi" as a source for studying the history of the Golden Horde // Golden Horde civilization. Digest of articles. Issue 4. - Kazan: Institute of History. Sh. Marjani AN RT, 2011. - S. 79-100.

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An excerpt characterizing the Golden Horde

For a long time that night Princess Marya sat at the open window in her room, listening to the sounds of peasants talking from the village, but she did not think about them. She felt that no matter how much she thought about them, she could not understand them. She kept thinking about one thing - about her grief, which now, after the break made by worries about the present, has already become past for her. She could now remember, she could cry and she could pray. As the sun went down, the wind died down. The night was calm and cool. At twelve o'clock the voices began to subside, a rooster crowed, the full moon began to emerge from behind the linden trees, a fresh, white dew mist rose, and silence reigned over the village and over the house.
One after another, she imagined pictures of the close past - illness and the last moments of her father. And with sad joy she now dwelled on these images, driving away from herself with horror only one last idea of ​​​​his death, which - she felt - she was unable to contemplate even in her imagination at this quiet and mysterious hour of the night. And these pictures appeared to her with such clarity and in such detail that they seemed to her either reality, or the past, or the future.
Then she vividly imagined the moment when he had a stroke and he was being dragged from the garden in the Bald Mountains by the arms and he was muttering something in an impotent tongue, twitching his gray eyebrows and looking restlessly and timidly at her.
“He wanted to tell me even then what he told me on the day of his death,” she thought. “He always thought what he said to me.” And now she remembered with all the details that night in the Bald Mountains on the eve of the blow that happened to him, when Princess Mary, anticipating trouble, stayed with him against his will. She did not sleep and went downstairs on tiptoe at night and, going to the door to the flower room, where her father spent the night that night, she listened to his voice. He was saying something to Tikhon in an exhausted, tired voice. He seemed to want to talk. "Why didn't he call me? Why didn't he allow me to be here in Tikhon's place? thought then and now Princess Marya. - He will never tell anyone now all that was in his soul. This moment will never return for him and for me when he would say everything that he wanted to express, and I, and not Tikhon, would listen and understand him. Why didn't I come into the room then? she thought. “Perhaps he would have told me then what he said on the day of his death. Even then, in a conversation with Tikhon, he asked twice about me. He wanted to see me, and I was standing there, outside the door. He was sad, it was hard to talk with Tikhon, who did not understand him. I remember how he spoke to him about Liza, as if alive - he forgot that she was dead, and Tikhon reminded him that she was no longer there, and he shouted: "Fool." It was hard for him. I heard from behind the door how, groaning, he lay down on the bed and shouted loudly: “My God! Why didn’t I go up then? What would he do to me? What would I lose? Or maybe then he would have consoled himself, he would have said this word to me. And Princess Marya uttered aloud that affectionate word that he had spoken to her on the day of his death. “Dude she nka! - Princess Marya repeated this word and sobbed tears that relieved her soul. She saw his face in front of her now. And not the face she had known since she could remember, and which she had always seen from afar; and that face - timid and weak, which on the last day, bending down to his mouth in order to hear what he was saying, for the first time examined closely with all its wrinkles and details.
"Darling," she repeated.
What was he thinking when he said that word? What does he think now? - suddenly a question came to her, and in response to this she saw him in front of her with the expression on his face that he had in the coffin on his face tied with a white handkerchief. And the horror that seized her when she touched him and became convinced that it was not only not him, but something mysterious and repulsive, seized her even now. She wanted to think about something else, she wanted to pray, and there was nothing she could do. She gazed with large open eyes at the moonlight and shadows, every second she expected to see his dead face, and she felt that the silence that stood over the house and in the house chained her.
- Dunyasha! she whispered. - Dunyasha! she cried in a wild voice and, breaking out of the silence, ran to the girls' room, towards the nanny and girls running towards her.

On August 17, Rostov and Ilyin, accompanied by Lavrushka and the escort hussar, who had just returned from captivity, from their Yankovo ​​camp, fifteen miles from Bogucharov, went riding - to try a new horse bought by Ilyin and find out if there is hay in the villages.
Bogucharovo had been between the two enemy armies for the last three days, so that the Russian rearguard could just as easily enter there as the French avant-garde, and therefore Rostov, as a caring squadron commander, wanted to take advantage of the provisions that remained in Bogucharov before the French.
Rostov and Ilyin were in the most cheerful mood. On the way to Bogucharovo, to the princely estate with a manor, where they hoped to find a large household and pretty girls, they first asked Lavrushka about Napoleon and laughed at his stories, then they drove, trying Ilyin's horse.
Rostov did not know and did not think that this village to which he was going was the estate of that same Bolkonsky, who was his sister's fiancé.
Rostov and Ilyin let the horses out for the last time in the cart in front of Bogucharov, and Rostov, having overtaken Ilyin, was the first to jump into the street of the village of Bogucharov.
“You took it ahead,” said Ilyin, flushed.
“Yes, everything is forward, and forward in the meadow, and here,” answered Rostov, stroking his soaring bottom with his hand.
“And I’m in French, Your Excellency,” Lavrushka said from behind, calling his draft horse French, “I would have overtaken, but I just didn’t want to shame.
They walked up to the barn, where a large crowd of peasants was standing.
Some peasants took off their hats, some, without taking off their hats, looked at the approachers. Two long old peasants, with wrinkled faces and sparse beards, came out of the tavern and with smiles, swaying and singing some awkward song, approached the officers.
- Well done! - said, laughing, Rostov. - What, do you have hay?
“And the same ones…” said Ilyin.
- Weigh ... oo ... oooh ... barking demon ... demon ... - the men sang with happy smiles.
One peasant left the crowd and approached Rostov.
- Which one will you be? - he asked.
“French,” answered Ilyin, laughing. "That's Napoleon himself," he said, pointing to Lavrushka.
- So, the Russians will be? the man asked.
- How much of your power is there? asked another small man, approaching them.
“Many, many,” answered Rostov. - Yes, what are you gathered here for? he added. Holiday, huh?
“The old men have gathered, on a worldly matter,” answered the peasant, moving away from him.
At this time, two women and a man in a white hat appeared on the road from the manor house, walking towards the officers.
- In my pink, mind not beating! said Ilyin, noticing Dunyasha resolutely advancing towards him.
Ours will be! Lavrushka said with a wink.
- What, my beauty, do you need? - said Ilyin, smiling.
- The princess was ordered to find out what regiment you are and your names?
- This is Count Rostov, squadron commander, and I am your obedient servant.
- Be ... se ... e ... du ... shka! sang the drunk peasant, smiling happily and looking at Ilyin, who was talking to the girl. Following Dunyasha, Alpatych approached Rostov, taking off his hat from a distance.
“I dare to disturb, your honor,” he said with deference, but with relative disdain for the youth of this officer, and putting his hand in his bosom. “My lady, the daughter of General-in-Chief Prince Nikolai Andreevich Bolkonsky, who died this fifteenth day, being in difficulty because of the ignorance of these people,” he pointed to the peasants, “asks you to come in ... if you don’t mind,” Alpatych said with a sad smile, “move off a few, otherwise it’s not so convenient when ... - Alpatych pointed to two men who were rushing around him from behind, like horseflies near a horse.
- Ah! .. Alpatych ... Huh? Yakov Alpatych!.. Important! sorry for Christ. Important! Huh? .. - said the men, smiling happily at him. Rostov looked at the drunken old men and smiled.
“Or maybe that’s a consolation to Your Excellency?” - said Yakov Alpatych with a sedate look, pointing at the old people with his hand not in his bosom.
“No, there is little consolation here,” said Rostov, and drove off. - What's the matter? - he asked.
- I dare to report to your excellency that the rude people here do not want to let the lady out of the estate and threaten to disown the horses, so that everything is packed in the morning and her excellency cannot leave.
- Can't be! cried Rostov.
“I have the honor to report to you the real truth,” Alpatych repeated.
Rostov got off the horse and, handing it over to the orderly, went with Alpatych to the house, asking him about the details of the case. Indeed, yesterday's offer of bread by the princess to the peasants, her explanation with Dron and with the gathering spoiled the matter so much that Dron finally handed over the keys, joined the peasants and did not appear at the request of Alpatych, and that in the morning, when the princess ordered to lay the mortgage in order to go, the peasants came out in a large crowd to the barn and sent to say that they would not let the princess out of the village, that there was an order not to be taken out, and they would unharness the horses. Alpatych went out to them, advising them, but they answered him (Karp spoke the most; Dron did not show up from the crowd) that the princess could not be released, that there was an order for that; but that let the princess remain, and they will serve her as before and obey her in everything.
At that moment, when Rostov and Ilyin galloped along the road, Princess Marya, in spite of Alpatych's dissuade, the nanny and the girls, ordered to mortgage and wanted to go; but, seeing the galloping cavalrymen, they took them for the French, the coachmen fled, and the wailing of women arose in the house.
- Father! native father! God has sent you, - tender voices said, while Rostov passed through the hall.
Princess Mary, lost and powerless, sat in the hall, while Rostov was brought in to her. She did not understand who he was, and why he was, and what would happen to her. Seeing his Russian face, and by his entrance and the first words spoken, recognizing him as a man of her circle, she looked at him with her deep and radiant gaze and began to speak in a voice that broke and trembled with excitement. Rostov immediately imagined something romantic in this meeting. “Defenseless, heartbroken girl, alone, left to the mercy of rude, rebellious men! And what a strange fate pushed me here! thought Rostov, listening to her and looking at her. - And what meekness, nobility in her features and expression! he thought as he listened to her timid story.
When she started talking about how it all happened the day after her father's funeral, her voice trembled. She turned away and then, as if afraid that Rostov would not take her words for a desire to pity him, looked at him inquiringly and frightened. Rostov had tears in his eyes. Princess Mary noticed this and looked gratefully at Rostov with that radiant look of hers that made her forget the ugliness of her face.
“I can’t express, princess, how happy I am that I accidentally drove here and will be able to show you my readiness,” said Rostov, getting up. - If you please go, and I answer you with my honor that not a single person will dare to make trouble for you if you only allow me to escort you, - and, bowing respectfully, as they bow to the ladies of royal blood, he went to the door.
By the respectfulness of his tone, Rostov seemed to show that, despite the fact that he would consider his acquaintance with her to be happiness, he did not want to use the opportunity of her misfortune to get closer to her.
Princess Marya understood and appreciated this tone.
“I am very, very grateful to you,” the princess told him in French, “but I hope that it was all just a misunderstanding and that no one is to blame for that. The princess suddenly burst into tears. “Excuse me,” she said.
Rostov, frowning, bowed deeply once more and left the room.

- Well, honey? No, brother, my pink charm, and Dunyasha's name is ... - But, looking at Rostov's face, Ilyin fell silent. He saw that his hero and commander were in a completely different line of thought.
Rostov looked angrily at Ilyin and, without answering him, quickly walked towards the village.
- I'll show them, I'll ask them, the robbers! he said to himself.
Alpatych with a floating step, so as not to run, barely caught up with Rostov at a trot.
- What decision would you like to make? he said, catching up with him.
Rostov stopped and, clenching his fists, suddenly moved menacingly towards Alpatych.
– Decision? What's the solution? Old bastard! he shouted at him. - What were you watching? A? The men are rioting, and you can't handle it? You yourself are a traitor. I know you, I'll skin everyone ... - And, as if afraid to waste his ardor in vain, he left Alpatych and quickly went forward. Alpatych, suppressing the feeling of insult, kept up with Rostov with a floating step and continued to tell him his thoughts. He said that the peasants were stagnant, that at the present moment it was imprudent to oppose them without having a military team, that it would not be better to send for a team first.
“I will give them a military command ... I will oppose them,” Nikolai said senselessly, choking on unreasonable animal malice and the need to vent this anger. Not realizing what he would do, unconsciously, with a quick, decisive step, he moved towards the crowd. And the closer he moved to her, the more Alpatych felt that his imprudent act could produce good results. The peasants of the crowd felt the same way, looking at his quick and firm gait and his determined, frowning face.
After the hussars entered the village and Rostov went to the princess, confusion and discord occurred in the crowd. Some peasants began to say that these newcomers were Russians and no matter how offended they were by not letting the young lady out. Drone was of the same opinion; but as soon as he expressed it, Karp and other peasants attacked the former headman.
- How many years have you eaten the world? Karp shouted at him. - You don't care! You will dig a little egg, take it away, what do you want, ruin our houses, or not?
- It is said that there should be order, no one should go out of the houses, so as not to take out a blue gunpowder - that's it! shouted another.
“There was a queue for your son, and you must have felt sorry for your baldness,” the little old man suddenly spoke quickly, attacking Dron, “but he shaved my Vanka. Oh, let's die!
- Then we will die!
“I am not a refuser from the world,” said Dron.
- That’s not a refuser, he has grown a belly! ..
Two long men were talking. As soon as Rostov, accompanied by Ilyin, Lavrushka and Alpatych, approached the crowd, Karp, putting his fingers behind his sash, smiling slightly, stepped forward. The drone, on the contrary, went into the back rows, and the crowd moved closer.
- Hey! who is your elder here? - shouted Rostov, quickly approaching the crowd.
- Is that the elder? What do you want? .. – asked Karp. But before he had time to finish, his hat fell off him and his head jerked to one side from a strong blow.
- Hats off, traitors! Rostov's full-blooded voice shouted. - Where is the elder? he shouted in a furious voice.
“The headman, the headman is calling ... Dron Zakharych, you,” hurriedly submissive voices were heard somewhere, and hats began to be removed from their heads.
“We can’t rebel, we observe the rules,” said Karp, and at the same moment several voices from behind suddenly began to speak:
- As the old men murmured, there are a lot of you bosses ...
- Talk? .. Riot! .. Robbers! Traitors! Rostov yelled senselessly, in a voice not his own, grabbing Karp by Yurot. - Knit him, knit him! he shouted, although there was no one to knit him, except for Lavrushka and Alpatych.
Lavrushka, however, ran up to Karp and grabbed him by the arms from behind.
- Will you order ours from under the mountain to call? he shouted.
Alpatych turned to the peasants, calling two by name to knit Karp. The men obediently left the crowd and began to unbelt.
- Where is the elder? shouted Rostov.
Drone, with a frown and pale face, stepped out of the crowd.
- Are you an elder? Knit, Lavrushka! - shouted Rostov, as if this order could not meet obstacles. And indeed, two more peasants began to knit Dron, who, as if helping them, took off his kushan and gave it to them.
- And you all listen to me, - Rostov turned to the peasants: - Now the march to the houses, and so that I don’t hear your voice.
“Well, we didn’t make any offense. We are just being stupid. They’ve only done nonsense… I told you it was disorder,” voices were heard reproaching each other.
“So I told you,” Alpatych said, coming into his own. - It's not good, guys!
“Our stupidity, Yakov Alpatych,” voices answered, and the crowd immediately began to disperse and scatter around the village.
The bound two peasants were taken to the manor's yard. Two drunk men followed them.
- Oh, I'll look at you! - said one of them, referring to Karp.
“Is it possible to speak to gentlemen like that?” What did you think?
“Fool,” another confirmed, “really, fool!”
Two hours later the carts were in the courtyard of Bogucharov's house. The peasants were eagerly carrying out and stacking the master's things on the carts, and Dron, at the request of Princess Mary, released from the locker where he was locked up, standing in the yard, disposed of the peasants.
“Don’t put it down so badly,” said one of the peasants, a tall man with a round smiling face, taking the box from the maid’s hands. She's worth the money too. Why are you throwing it like that or half a rope - and it will rub. I don't like that. And to be honest, according to the law. That's how it is under the matting, but cover it with a curtain, that's important. Love!
“Look for books, books,” said another peasant, who was carrying out the library cabinets of Prince Andrei. - You do not cling! And it’s heavy, guys, the books are healthy!
- Yes, they wrote, they didn’t walk! - a tall chubby man said with a significant wink, pointing to the thick lexicons lying on top.

Rostov, not wanting to impose his acquaintance on the princess, did not go to her, but remained in the village, waiting for her to leave. Having waited for Princess Mary's carriages to leave the house, Rostov mounted on horseback and accompanied her on horseback to the path occupied by our troops, twelve miles from Bogucharov. In Jankovo, at the inn, he took leave of her respectfully, for the first time allowing himself to kiss her hand.
“You’re not ashamed,” blushing, he answered Princess Marya to the expression of gratitude for her salvation (as she called his act), “every guard would have done the same. If we only had to fight with the peasants, we would not let the enemy go so far, ”he said, ashamed of something and trying to change the conversation. “I am only happy to have had the opportunity to meet you. Farewell, princess, I wish you happiness and consolation and wish to meet you under happier conditions. If you don't want to make me blush, please don't thank me.
But the princess, if she did not thank him more with words, thanked him with the whole expression of her face, beaming with gratitude and tenderness. She couldn't believe him, that she had nothing to thank him for. On the contrary, for her it was undoubtedly that if he were not there, then she probably would have to die from both the rebels and the French; that he, in order to save her, exposed himself to the most obvious and terrible dangers; and even more undoubted was the fact that he was a man with a lofty and noble soul, who knew how to understand her position and grief. His kind and honest eyes, with tears coming out of them, while she herself, crying, spoke to him about her loss, did not go out of her imagination.
When she said goodbye to him and was left alone, Princess Mary suddenly felt tears in her eyes, and then, not for the first time, she asked herself a strange question: does she love him?
On the way further to Moscow, despite the fact that the situation of the princess was not joyful, Dunyasha, who was traveling with her in a carriage, noticed more than once that the princess, leaning out of the window of the carriage, smiled joyfully and sadly at something.
“Well, what if I did love him? thought Princess Mary.
No matter how ashamed she was to admit to herself that she was the first to love a man who, perhaps, would never love her, she consoled herself with the thought that no one would ever know this and that it would not be her fault if for the rest of her life, no one talking about loving the one she loved for the first and last time.
Sometimes she remembered his views, his participation, his words, and it seemed to her that happiness was not impossible. And then Dunyasha noticed that she, smiling, was looking out the window of the carriage.
“And he should have come to Bogucharovo, and at that very moment! thought Princess Mary. - And it was necessary for his sister to refuse Prince Andrei! - And in all this, Princess Mary saw the will of providence.
The impression made on Rostov by Princess Marya was very pleasant. When he thought about her, he felt merry, and when his comrades, having learned about the adventure that had happened with him in Bogucharov, joked to him that he, having gone for hay, had picked up one of the richest brides in Russia, Rostov became angry. He was angry precisely because the idea of ​​​​marrying a pleasant for him, meek Princess Marya with a huge fortune more than once came to his mind against his will. For himself, Nikolai could not wish for a better wife than Princess Mary: marrying her would make the Countess, his mother, happy, and improve his father’s affairs; and even—Nikolai felt it—would have made Princess Marya happy. But Sonya? And this word? And this made Rostov angry when they joked about Princess Bolkonskaya.

Having taken command of the armies, Kutuzov remembered Prince Andrei and sent him an order to arrive at the main apartment.
Prince Andrei arrived in Tsarevo Zaimishche on the very day and at the very time of the day when Kutuzov was making the first review of the troops. Prince Andrei stopped in the village near the priest's house, where the commander-in-chief's carriage was stationed, and sat down on a bench at the gate, waiting for the Serene Highness, as everyone now called Kutuzov. On the field outside the village, one could hear the sounds of regimental music, then the roar of a huge number of voices shouting “Hurrah! to the new commander-in-chief. Immediately at the gate, about ten paces from Prince Andrei, taking advantage of the absence of the prince and the fine weather, stood two batmen, a courier and a butler. Blackish, overgrown with mustaches and sideburns, a little hussar lieutenant colonel rode up to the gate and, looking at Prince Andrei, asked: is the brightest here and will he be soon?
Prince Andrei said that he did not belong to the headquarters of his Serene Highness and was also a visitor. The hussar lieutenant colonel turned to the well-dressed batman, and the batman of the commander-in-chief said to him with that special contempt with which the batmen of the commanders-in-chief speak to the officers:
- What, brightest? It must be now. You that?
The hussar lieutenant colonel grinned into his mustache at the orderly, got off the horse, gave it to the messenger and went up to Bolkonsky, bowing slightly to him. Bolkonsky stood aside on the bench. The hussar lieutenant-colonel sat down beside him.
Are you also waiting for the commander-in-chief? said the hussar lieutenant colonel. - Govog "yat, accessible to everyone, thank God. Otherwise, trouble with sausages! Nedag" om Yeg "molov in the Germans pg" settled down. Tepeg "maybe and g" Russian talk "it will be possible. Otherwise, Cheg" does not know what they were doing. Everyone retreated, everyone retreated. Did you do the hike? - he asked.
- I had the pleasure, - answered Prince Andrei, - not only to participate in the retreat, but also to lose in this retreat everything that he had dear, not to mention the estates and home ... father, who died of grief. I am from Smolensk.
- And? .. Are you Prince Bolkonsky? It’s very cool to meet you: Lieutenant Colonel Denisov, better known by the name of Vaska, Denisov said, shaking Prince Andrei’s hand and peering into Bolkonsky’s face with especially kind attention. Yes, I heard, ”he said sympathetically and, after a pause, continued : - Here is the Scythian war. This is all hog "osho, but not for those who puff with their sides. And you are Prince Andg "she Bolkonsky?" He shook his head. "Very hell, prince, very hell to meet you," he added again with a sad smile, shaking his hand.
Prince Andrei knew Denisov from Natasha's stories about her first fiancé. This recollection both sweetly and painfully carried him now to those painful sensations that he had not thought about for a long time, but which nevertheless were in his soul. Recently, there have been so many other and such serious impressions as leaving Smolensk, his arrival in the Bald Mountains, recently known about the death of his father - so many sensations were experienced by him that these memories had not come to him for a long time and, when they did, had no effect on him. him with the same strength. And for Denisov, the series of memories that Bolkonsky’s name evoked was the distant, poetic past, when, after dinner and Natasha’s singing, without knowing how, he proposed to a fifteen-year-old girl. He smiled at the memories of that time and his love for Natasha, and immediately turned to what passionately and exclusively now occupied him. This was the campaign plan he had come up with while serving in the outposts during the retreat. He presented this plan to Barclay de Tolly and now intended to present it to Kutuzov. The plan was based on the fact that the French line of operations was too long and that instead of, or at the same time, acting from the front, blocking the way for the French, it was necessary to act on their messages. He began to explain his plan to Prince Andrei.
“They can't hold this whole line. This is impossible, I answer that pg "og" vu them; give me five hundred people, I g "azog" vu them, this is veg "but! One system is pag" tizanskaya.
Denisov stood up and, making gestures, outlined his plan to Bolkonsky. In the middle of his exposition, the cries of the army, more incoherent, more widespread and merging with music and songs, were heard at the place of the review. There was a clatter and screams in the village.
“He’s on his way,” shouted the Cossack, who was standing at the gate, “he’s on his way!” Bolkonsky and Denisov moved up to the gate, at which a handful of soldiers (guard of honor) stood, and saw Kutuzov advancing along Kutuzov Street, riding a short bay horse. A huge retinue of generals rode behind him. Barclay rode almost alongside; a crowd of officers ran after them and around them and shouted "Hurrah!".
Adjutants galloped ahead of him into the yard. Kutuzov, impatiently pushing his horse, which was ambling under his weight, and constantly nodding his head, put his hand to the misfortune of the cavalry guard (with a red band and without a visor) cap that was on him. Having approached the guard of honor of the young grenadiers, mostly cavaliers, who saluted him, for a minute he silently, carefully looked at them with a commanding stubborn look and turned to the crowd of generals and officers standing around him. His face suddenly took on a subtle expression; he shrugged his shoulders with a gesture of bewilderment.
- And with such good fellows, everything retreats and retreats! - he said. “Well, goodbye, general,” he added, and touched the horse through the gate past Prince Andrei and Denisov.
- Hooray! hooray! hooray! shouted from behind him.
Since Prince Andrei had not seen him, Kutuzov had grown even fatter, flabby and swollen with fat. But the familiar white eye, and the wound, and the expression of weariness in his face and figure were the same. He was dressed in a uniform frock coat (a whip on a thin belt hung over his shoulder) and in a white cavalry guard cap. He, heavily blurring and swaying, sat on his cheerful horse.
“Fu… fu… fu…” he whistled almost audibly as he drove into the yard. His face expressed the joy of reassuring a man who intends to rest after the representation. He pulled his left leg out of the stirrup, falling down with his whole body and grimacing from the effort, with difficulty brought it to the saddle, leaned on his knee, grunted and went down on his hands to the Cossacks and adjutants who supported him.
He recovered, looked around with his narrowed eyes, and looking at Prince Andrei, apparently not recognizing him, walked with his diving gait to the porch.
“Fu… fu… fu,” he whistled and looked back at Prince Andrei. The impression of Prince Andrei's face only after a few seconds (as is often the case with old people) was associated with the memory of his personality.
“Ah, hello, prince, hello, my dear, let’s go ...” he said wearily, looking around, and heavily entered the porch, creaking under his weight. He unbuttoned and sat down on a bench on the porch.
- Well, what about the father?
“Yesterday I received news of his death,” said Prince Andrei shortly.
Kutuzov looked at Prince Andrei with frightened open eyes, then took off his cap and crossed himself: “Kingdom to him in heaven! May the will of God be over all of us! He sighed heavily, with all his chest, and was silent. “I loved and respected him and I sympathize with you with all my heart.” He embraced Prince Andrei, pressed him to his fat chest and did not let go for a long time. When he released him, Prince Andrei saw that Kutuzov's swollen lips were trembling and there were tears in his eyes. He sighed and grabbed the bench with both hands to stand up.
“Come, come to me, we’ll talk,” he said; but at this time Denisov, as little shy before his superiors as before the enemy, despite the fact that the adjutants at the porch stopped him in an angry whisper, boldly, banging his spurs on the steps, entered the porch. Kutuzov, leaving his hands resting on the bench, looked displeasedly at Denisov. Denisov, having identified himself, announced that he had to inform his lordship of a matter of great importance for the good of the fatherland. Kutuzov began to look at Denisov with a tired look and with an annoyed gesture, taking his hands and folding them on his stomach, he repeated: “For the good of the fatherland? Well, what is it? Speak." Denisov blushed like a girl (it was so strange to see the color on that mustachioed, old and drunken face), and boldly began to outline his plan for cutting the enemy's line of operations between Smolensk and Vyazma. Denisov lived in these parts and knew the area well. His plan seemed undoubtedly good, especially in terms of the force of conviction that was in his words. Kutuzov looked at his feet and occasionally looked back at the yard of a neighboring hut, as if he was expecting something unpleasant from there. Indeed, during Denisov's speech, a general appeared from the hut he was looking at with a briefcase under his arm.

History of the Golden Horde.

Formation of the Golden Horde.

Golden Horde got its start as a separate state in 1224, when Batu Khan came to power, and in 1266 finally withdrew from the Mongol Empire.

It is worth noting that the term "Golden Horde" was coined by the Russians, many years after the khanate collapsed - in the middle of the 16th century. Three centuries earlier, these territories were called differently, and there was no single name for them.

Lands of the Golden Horde.

Genghis Khan, Batu's grandfather, divided his empire equally between his sons - and in general, her lands occupied almost an entire continent. Suffice it to say that in 1279 the Mongol Empire stretched from the Danube to the coast of the Sea of ​​Japan, from the Baltic to the borders of present-day India. And it took only about 50 years for these conquests - and a large part of them belonged to Batu.

Rus''s dependence on the Golden Horde.

In the XIII century, under the onslaught of the Golden Horde, Rus' surrendered. True, it was not easy to cope with the conquered country, the princes strove for independence, so from time to time the khans made new campaigns, devastating cities and punishing the recalcitrant. This went on for almost 300 years - until in 1480 the Tatar-Mongol yoke was finally thrown off.

Capital of the Golden Horde.

The internal structure of the Horde did not differ much from the feudal system of other countries. The empire was divided into many principalities, or uluses, ruled by small khans who were subordinate to one great khan.

Capital of the Golden Horde in the days of Batu was in the city Sarai-Batu, and in the XIV century was transferred to Shed-Berke.

Khans of the Golden Horde.

The most famous Khans of the Golden Horde- these are those from which Rus' suffered the most damage and ruin, among them:

• Batu, from which the Tatar-Mongolian name began
• Mamai, defeated on the Kulikovo field
• Tokhtamysh, who went on a campaign to Rus' after Mamai to punish the rebels.
• Edigey, who made a devastating raid in 1408, shortly before the yoke was finally thrown off.

Golden Horde and Rus': the fall of the Golden Horde.

Like many feudal states, in the end, the Golden Horde collapsed and ceased to exist due to internal unrest.

The process began in the middle of the XIV century, when Astrakhan and Khorezm separated from the Horde. In 1380, Rus' began to raise its head, defeating Mamai on the Kulikovo field. But the Horde's biggest mistake was the campaign against the empire of Tamerlane, who dealt the Mongols a mortal blow.

In the XV century, the Golden Horde, once strong, split into the Siberian, Crimean and Kazan khanates. Over time, these territories obeyed the Horde less and less, in 1480 Rus' finally got out of the yoke.

Thus, years of existence of the Golden Horde: 1224-1481. Khan Akhmat was killed in 1481. This year is considered to be the end of the existence of the Golden Horde. However, it completely collapsed under the rule of his children, at the beginning of the 16th century.