Russian culture 14th-16th centuries Russian culture in the XIV-XVI centuries

Option 1

The Mongol-Tatar invasion interrupted the powerful rise of Russian culture. The destruction of cities, the loss of traditions, the disappearance of artistic trends, the destruction of monuments of writing, painting, architecture - a blow, from which it was possible to recover only by the middle of the 14th century. In the ideas and images of Russian culture of the XIV-XVI centuries. the mood of the era was reflected - the time of decisive successes in the struggle for independence, the overthrow of the Horde yoke, unification around Moscow, the formation of the Great Russian people.
The memory of a prosperous and happy country, which Kievan Rus remained in the minds of society (“light bright and beautifully decorated” - the words from “The Tale of the Perdition of the Russian Land”, no later than 1246), was kept primarily by literature. Chronicle writing remained its most important genre; it was revived in all the lands and principalities of Russia. At the beginning of the XV century. in Moscow, the first all-Russian annalistic code was compiled - an important evidence of progress in the unification of the country. With the completion of this process, chronicle writing, subordinated to the idea of ​​justifying the power of the Moscow prince, and then the tsar, acquired an official character. During the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible (70s of the 16th century), an illustrated Chronicle of the Face was compiled in 12 volumes, containing more than 15000 miniatures. In the XIV-XV centuries. the favorite topic of oral folk art is the struggle of Russia with the "infidels". A genre of historical song is taking shape (“The Song of the Click”, about the battle on the Kalka, about the ruin of Ryazan, about Evpaty Kolovrat, etc.). The most important events of the 16th century were also reflected in historical songs. - Kazan campaign of Ivan the Terrible, oprichnina, the image of the Terrible Tsar. Victory in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. gave rise to a cycle of historical stories, of which the "Tale of the Mamaev Battle" and the inspired "Zadonshchina" stand out (its author Sofony Ryazanets used images and excerpts from "The Tale of Igor's Campaign"). The lives of the saints are being created, in the 16th century. they are combined into a 12-volume set of "Great Readings-Meney". In the XV century. The Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin describes his journey to India and Persia (“Journey Beyond the Three Seas”). The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom, the love story of the prince of Murom and his wife, probably described by Yermolai-Erasmus in the middle of the 16th century, remains a unique literary monument. Domostroy, written by the confessor of Ivan the Terrible Sichvestra, is remarkable in its own way - a book about housekeeping, raising and educating children, and the role of a woman in a family.
At the end of the XV-XVI centuries. literature is enriched by brilliant journalistic works. The Josephites (followers of Igumen Joseph of the Volotsk Monastery, who defend the principle of non-intervention of the state in the affairs of a rich and materially strong church) and non-possessors (Nil Sorsky, Vassian Patrikeev, Maxim the Greek, who blame the church for wealth and luxury, for craving for worldly pleasures) argue fiercely. In 1564-1577. Ivan the Terrible and Prince Andrei Kurbsky exchange angry messages. “... Tsars and rulers who make cruel laws are dying,” Kurbsky inspires the tsar and hears in response: “Is it really light - when the priest and crafty slaves rule, the tsar is only a tsar in name and honor, and not at all with power better than a slave? The idea of ​​the "autocracy" of the tsar, the divinity of his power, acquires almost hypnotic power in Ivan the Terrible's messages. Differently, but just as consistently, Ivan Peresvetov writes about the special vocation of the autocratic tsar in Bolshaya Petition (1549): punishing the boyars who have forgotten their duty to society, the righteous monarch must rely on the devoted nobility. The significance of the official ideology is the notion of Moscow as a “third Rome”: “Two Romes (“the second Rome” - Constantinople, devastated in 1453 - Auth.) fell, the third stands, the fourth will not happen” (Filotheos).

It should be noted that in 1564 in Moscow Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets published the first Russian printed book - "The Apostle".

In the architecture of the XIV-XVI centuries. the tendencies of the historical development of Russia-Russia were reflected with particular obviousness. At the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. stone construction is resumed - in Novgorod and Pskov, less affected by the Ordish yoke. In the XIV century. in Novgorod, a new type of temples appears - light, elegant, bright (Spas on Ilyin). But half a century passes, and tradition wins: harsh, heavy structures reminiscent of the past are being erected again. Politics imperiously invades art, demanding that it be the guardian of independence, which the unifier Moscow is so successfully fighting against. Signs of the capital city of a single state, it accumulates gradually, but consistently. In 1367 the white-stone Kremlin is being built, at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. new red-brick walls and towers are being erected. They are erected by masters Pietro Antonio Solari, Aleviz Novy, Mark Ruffo, ordered from Italy. By that time, the Assumption Cathedral (1479), an outstanding architectural monument, had already been erected on the territory of the Kremlin by the Italian Aristotle Fioravanti, an outstanding architectural monument in which an experienced eye will see both features traditional for Vladimir-Suzdal architecture and elements of the Renaissance building art. Next to another work of Italian masters - the Faceted Chamber (1487-1489) - Pskov craftsmen are building the Cathedral of the Annunciation (1484-1489). A little later, the same Aleviz Novy completes the magnificent ensemble of Cathedral Square with the Archangel Cathedral, the tomb of the Grand Dukes (1505-1509). Behind the Kremlin wall on Red Square in 1555-1560. in honor of the capture of Kazan, the nine-domed Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral) is erected, crowned with a high multifaceted pyramid - a tent. This detail gave the name "tent" to the architectural style that arose in the 16th century. (Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, 1532). Zealots of antiquity struggle with "outrageous innovations", but their victory is relative: at the end of the century, the desire for pomp and beauty is reborn. Painting of the second half of the XIV-XV centuries is the golden age of Theophan the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius. The murals of the Novgorod (Savior on Ilyin) and Moscow (Annunciation Cathedral) churches of Theophanes the Greek and Rublev’s icons (“Trinity”, “Savior”, etc.) are turned to God, but they tell about a person, his soul, about the search for harmony and ideal. Painting, remaining deeply religious in themes, images, genres (wall paintings, icons), acquires unexpected humanity, softness, and philosophy.

Option 2

Culture and spiritual life of Russia in the 14th-16th centuries.

By the 14th century, in the conditions of fragmentation and the influence of neighboring peoples, features developed in the language, customs, and culture of the peoples of different parts of Russia. 14-16 century connected with the struggle against the Horde yoke and the formation of the Russian centralized state around Moscow. Literature is represented by historical songs, which sang the victory at the "Kulikovo field", the heroism of Russian soldiers. In "Zadonshchina" and "The Legend of the Mamaev Battle" tells of the victory over the Mongol-Tatars. Afanasy Nikitin, who visited India, left his notes “Journey beyond three seas”, where he tells about the customs and beauties of this region. An outstanding event in Russian culture was printing. In 1564, Ivan Fedorov published the first printed book in Russia, The Apostle, and later The Primer. In the 16th century, an encyclopedia of the patriarchal conditions of family life was created. Painting began to move away from church canals more and more. Theophanes the Greek in the 14th century. painted the temples of Novgorod and Moscow. Andrei Rublev, known for the Trinity, worked with him. Dianisy painted the Vologda Cathedral near Vologda and others. It is inherent in: brightness, festivity, refinement. The development of architecture is associated with large-scale construction in Moscow, where the walls of the Kremlin, the Arkhangelsk Annunciation Cathedral, the Assumption Cathedrals, the Faceted Chamber, and the bell tower of Ivan the Great were erected. The craft, especially foundry, reached a high level. Andrey Chokhov created the Tsar Cannon, which weighs 40 tons, and its caliber is 89 cm. In the culture of the 14th-16th centuries. more and more secular elements appear, there is a kind of return and revival of Russian culture.

Option 3

The restoration of cultural values, which suffered enormous damage after the invasion of Batu, was part of the restoration of people's life. Two main ideas inspired Russian culture XIV - XVIcenturies: the idea of ​​the liberation struggle against the Mongol-Tatar conquerors and the idea of ​​the unity of the native land, which found expression in the process of political unification of the country.

The patriotic idea of ​​fighting the conquerors gave rise to vivid literary works. Directly following the traces of the invasion, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu” was created, in which a folk legend about the exploit of Yevpaty Kolovrat was preserved. The popular uprising in Tver in 1327 against the Mongol-Tatars is glorified in the Song of Shchelkan Dudentevich. The glorious victory over the hordes of Mamai in 1380 inspired the authors of the poetic "Zadonshchina" and"WITH testimonies about the Mamaev massacre. The story about the invasion of Khan Tokhtamysh (1382) emphasized the role of the masses, "black people" in the defense of Moscow. Their courage was contrasted with the cowardice of the boyars, who tried to flee even before the siege of the capital began.

The patriotic ideas of the struggle against the conquerors and the unity of the native land were also carried out in the annals. Moscow, the political and cultural center of Russia, became the center of all-Russian chronicle writing. The first chronicle of an all-Russian character was created in Moscow in 1408; this is the famous Trinity Chronicle, which burned down during the Moscow fire of 1812. In 1480, the Moscow Chronicle Code was compiled. In the Moscow chronicles, the idea of ​​succession of the power of the Moscow princes from the great Kyiv and Vladimir princes was carried out. Several large chronicles were created in XVIin. (Facebook, Nikon Chronicle), but they are being replaced by other types of historical writings. In the "Book of Powers" the presentation was carried out not by year, but by "degrees" - chapters devoted to the reigns of the great princes. Chronographs, i.e., summary reviews of general and Russian history, and works devoted to individual outstanding events, were widely used. Thus, the "Kazan chronicler" was dedicated to the events of the Kazan war, it was very popular and was preserved in more than 230 lists.

XVIcentury marked by the flourishing of Russian journalism. Representatives of different classes acted with journalistic works in which they defended their views. With a program of reforms in the interests of the nobility, Ivan Peresvetov spoke in his "petitions". Okolnichiy Fyodor Karpov denounced the abuses of the authorities, called for "law" and "justice." Maxim the Greek condemned church land tenure and usury. Priest Yermolai Erasmus spoke with democratic views, stating that "plowmen are most useful, their labors create the main wealth," and offered to alleviate the situation of the peasants. The letters of Ivan the Terrible to Prince Kurbsky, in which he defends his right to autocratic power, are striking publicistic works. In turn, Andrei Kurbsky expounded in his letters the position of the feudal aristocracy. Kurbsky owned a large historical work, The History of the Grand Duke of Moscow.

However, the rise of socio-political thought, caused by the aggravation of internal contradictions in the country, was short-lived. In the second halfXVIin. the regulatory influence of the royal power and the church increased. With the participation of the court priest Sylvester and Metropolitan Macarius, Domostroy, a collection of mandatory moral and everyday rules, was compiled; in the "Chetya-Minei" - a collection of instructive readings for every day - were collected church and secular works, revised by churchmen. This is how the church influenced literature. Significant progress has been made in the development of writing and the spread of literacy. AT XIVin. in Russia, paper appeared, which replaced expensive parchment. Books have become cheaper and more accessible. Literate people were not uncommon in the Russian city. As a rule, the nobles themselves signed documents, the townspeople kept written records, and many inscriptions on handicrafts have been preserved. At the Stoglavy Cathedral in 1551, it was decided to create schools "for teaching reading and writing", textbooks - "alphabetics" were published. The printing press contributed to the spread of literacy. In 1564, Ivan Fedorov, the first printer, published his first book, The Apostle, in Moscow. It was followed by the Book of Hours, and only in the second half XVIin. about 20 printed books were published, mostly theological content.

After a break of almost a century, stone construction resumed in the cities of Russia. Stone cathedrals were restored in Vladimir, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Rostov and other cities, new stone churches continued to be built in Novgorod. In the Moscow principality, with its rise, stone construction was widely developed. In the first half XIVin. Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals were built, in 1367 stone walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin were built. At the beginningXVin. the construction of the Grand-Ducal Cathedral of the Annunciation was completed, the walls and vaults of which were painted by outstanding painters of that time: Theophan the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Prokhor from Gorodets. Stone construction developed especially widely during the reign of Grand Duke Ivan III. New Kremlin walls and towers were built of brick, which have survived to this day, monumental cathedrals were built on the site of the former temples: Assumption, Annunciation, Arkhangelsk, foreign architects, including the famous Italian Aristotle Fioravanti, took part in the construction together with Russian stone craftsmen. In the 1930s, the fortifications of Moscow were supplemented by the stone walls of Kitay-gorod, which surrounded the capital's shopping center. The construction of stone civil buildings began. In the Kremlin, a magnificent ensemble of the grand duke's palace was created with the famous Palace of Facets - the place of royal ceremonies and receptions of foreign ambassadors. In the traditions of Russian wooden architecture in 1532, a stone hipped church was built in the village. Kolomna and. St. Basil's Cathedral on Red Square (1556) in memory of the capture of Kazan. By the end XVIin. the multi-tiered bell tower of Ivan the Great in Moscow (82 m) was completed; Stone construction unfolded in other cities. Especially a lot of fortifications were built. Stone kremlins grew in Nizhny Novgorod, Kolomna, Tula, Zaraysk, powerful stone walls surrounded the Trinity-Sergievsky, Volokolamsky, Solovetsky, Kirillo-Belozersky and other monasteries. The stone fortress in Smolensk, built by the architect Fyodor Kon, was grandiose in size.

The development of painting inXIV - XVIcenturies connected primarily with the names of Theophan the Greek, Andrei Rublev, Dionysius. Theophanes the Greek in the last quarter XIVin. painted cathedrals in Novgorod, and then in Moscow and other cities. He brought to Russia the traditions of Byzantine art, a magnificent painting technique, which was further developed by his students. However, the first Russian national painter was Andrei Rublev, who boldly deviated from the Byzantine church canons. He owns the magnificent paintings of the Andronikov Monastery and the Annunciation Cathedral in Moscow, the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the church in Zvenigorod (“Trinity”, “Savior”). Within the framework of church subjects, Andrei Rublev conveyed human passions and experiences, the Russian national character. The name of Dionysius is associated with the formation of the Moscow school of painting: juicy and festive colors, solemnity, interest in real life. The frescoes of Dionysius have been preserved in the temple of the Ferapontov Monastery.

In the middle XVIin. in Russian painting, realistic, secular motifs are intensified, images of historical figures and events appear. An example of such works is the icon "Militant Church", which glorified the Russian victory over the Kazan Khanate. The miniatures of the "Face Vault" (and there were more than 16 thousand of them) depict many realistic subjects, even scenes of the labor activity of peasants and townspeople. In the second half XVIin. in connection with the increased church regulation, realistic motifs in painting are less noticeable. Painters began to pay the main attention to the improvement of technique, the purity of colors, and the careful study of small details. These features are characteristic of the so-called Stroganov school of painting.

Gradually there was an accumulation of scientific knowledge, caused by the military and state needs of a centralized state. The development of artillery revived interest in mathematics, practical dynamics, and chemistry. Manuals were written for individual crafts (for example, salt making). To conduct a census of lands, a manual on the "land mark" was developed, and "drawings" of individual cities and lands were drawn up. Under Ivan IVthe "drawing of the state" was created - the first geographical map of Russia. The geographic outlook of the Russian people has significantly expanded. The Suzdal monk Simeon described in 1439 his journey through the countries of Western Europe. Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin in the second half XVin. traveled to India. Yermak with his Cossacks marched through Western Siberia to the river. Irtysh. Astronomical observations were carried out in order to clarify the church calendar, detailed descriptions of solar eclipses, comets, atmospheric phenomena appeared in the annals, about one of the collections of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery XVin. contained arguments of an unknown author "about the latitude and longitude of the earth", "about the earthly dispensation", "about the distance between heaven and earth". Russian people tried to comprehend the world around them not from religious positions.

Russian cultureXIV - XVIcenturies was national in character, distinguished by wealth and originality. Its heyday coincided in time with the formation of the Great Russian people.

The basis for the formation of the Great Russian nationality was living together within the framework of the emerging Russian state, the liberation struggle against external enemies, which required all-Russian efforts, the common territory and socio-economic structure of the Russian lands. North-Eastern Russia became the core of the emerging Great Russian nation, and Moscow, which was not only the state and military, but also the national center of the country, became its center. AT XIV - XVcenturies the Great Russian language was formed with its characteristic phonetic features and grammatical structure, local features in the language were gradually erased. The Moscow dialect, absorbing local dialects, turned into a common Russian language. AT XIVin. North-Eastern Russia began to be called "Great Russia", and at the end XV- early XVIcentury, as the studies of academician M. N. Tikhomirov showed, the term "Rus" is replaced by the term "Russia".

- Source-

Artemov, N.E. History of the USSR: Textbook for students of Institute of culture I90. In 2 parts. Part 1 / N.E. Artemov [and d.b.]. - M .: Higher School, 1982. - 512 p.

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As a result of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, severe damage was inflicted on material and cultural values. A sharp increase in the disunity of the Russian lands from the middle of the 13th century made itself felt, which negatively affected the development of Russian culture. Immediately after the establishment of the Horde dominion in Russia, the construction of stone buildings was temporarily stopped.

THE ART OF A NUMEROUS ARTISTIC CRAFTS WAS LOST.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, local centers of chronicle writing, as well as literary art schools, were formed. During the Mongol-Tatar yoke, some of these traditions were preserved, which created the basis for a future cultural upsurge by the end of the 14th century. In addition, the struggle for state integrity and independence brought together the cultures of different lands, as well as the culture of the elite and the people. Despite the fact that many cultural works died, many appeared.

Having joined the system of world trade relations through the Golden Horde, Russia adopted a number of cultural achievements of the countries of the East, the technology of manufacturing various objects, architectural achievements and general cultural ones.

On the other hand, the Mongol-Tatar invasion influenced the rise of Moscow as the center of the unification of Russia. And gradually the all-Russian culture began to take shape on the basis of the culture of Vladimir Rus.

CHRONICLE

Starting from the second half of the 13th century, chronicle writing was gradually restored in the Russian lands. Its main centers remained the Principality of Galicia-Volyn, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, Ryazan, and from about 1250 Vladimir. There are also new centers Moscow, Tver.

Since the second half of the 14th century, the compilation of chronicles and handwritten books has experienced a significant rise. The leading place is gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicle tradition with its ideas of uniting the lands around Moscow. The Moscow chronicle tradition has come down to us as part of the Trinity Chronicle at the beginning of the 15th century and, unlike local chronicles, is the first collection of an all-Russian character since the time of Ancient Russia, here the right of the princes of Moscow to be the head of Russia is justified.

> In the middle of the 15th century, a brief world history appeared - the chronograph.

ORAL FOLK CREATIVITY OF RUSSIA

At the same time, the most important genre of literature in the 13th century, which received dynamic development, was oral folk art: epics, songs, legends, military stories. They reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and about the world around them.

The first cycle of epics is a refinement and revision of the old cycle of epics about the Kievan state.

The second cycle of epics— Novgorod. It glorifies the wealth, power, love of freedom of the free city, as well as the courage of the townspeople in protecting the city from enemies.

> The main characters are Sadko, Vasily Buslaevich.

Other genres appear in the 14th century and are dedicated to understanding the Mongol conquest. Tale-tales: about the battle on the Kalka River, about the rose garden of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, as well as about the defender of Smolensk - the young Smolyanin Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Virgin from the Mongol troops. Part of the works of this cycle was included in the annalistic vaults.

LITERATURE OF RUSSIA

In the tradition of lamentation it is written "A word about the destruction of the Russian land"(only the first part survived). The ideas of national liberation and patriotism are also reflected in works dedicated to the northwestern borders of the Russian land: "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky". A number of hagiographic works are dedicated to the princes who died in the horde. This is life of Mikhail Chernigov. The princes are presented in these works as defenders of the Orthodox faith and Russia.

Military story Zadonshchina, compiled, it is believed, by Safony Ryazan, modeled on a word about Igor's regiment.

> Images, literary style, individual turns, expressions were borrowed from here. It does not report a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings from what happened. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo.

This victory is considered here as retribution for the defeat on the Kalka River. The work expresses pride in the victory, glorifies Moscow as the state center of Russia. Zadonshchina has been preserved in the original. Characterized by good literary language.

In the genre of secular literature written Sailing over three seas Afanasy Nikitina. This is one of the few secular works preserved in Russia. It recounts the impressions of travel to India and many eastern countries. This is a travel diary.

THE BEGINNING OF PRINTING IN RUSSIA

The end of the 15th century is associated with the completion of the formation of the Great Russian people.

> A language was formed that differed from Church Slavonic. The Moscow dialect became dominant.

With the formation of a centralized state, the need for literate, educated people increased.

> In 1563 Ivan Fedorov headed the state printing house. His assistant was Fyodor Mstislavovich. First published book - Apostle. The printing house worked mainly for the needs of the church.

IN 1574 THE FIRST RUSSIAN ALPHABET IS PUBLISHED IN LVIV.

GENERAL POLITICAL THOUGHT OF RUSSIA IN THE 16TH CENTURY.

The reforms of the Chosen Rada under Ivan the Terrible were aimed at strengthening the centralization of the state. The general political thought of Russia reflected several trends on the relationship between power and individual segments of the population, designed to support it. Either the tsarist government had to fight the boyars, or the boyars had to be its main support.

Ivan Peresvetov (Russian y nobleman) was part of the embassy order. In his petitions, he expressed his program of action. In an allegorical form, he showed that the support of the state is service people. Their position in the service should be determined not by origin, but by personal merit. The main vices that led to the death of the state are the dominance of the nobles, their unjust judgment and indifference to the affairs of the state. In its allegorical form, the theme associated with the fall of Byzantium is actively flashed.

> Ivan Peresvetov called for pushing the boyars out of power and bringing those people who were really interested in military service closer to the tsar.

Another position was expressed by Prince Kurbsky (one of the leaders of the Chosen Rada). He defended the point of view that the best people of Russia should help her. The streak of persecution by the boyars coincided with the streak of failures of Russia. That is why Kurbsky left the country, because the boyars were treated incorrectly here.

IVAN THE TERRIBLE LOVED AND RESPECTED THIS MAN SO MUCH, THEREFORE, HIS DEPARTURE HAS BEEN PAINFUL.

They corresponded for a long time. Ivan the Terrible wrote to Kurbsky that boyar rule was negative, since in childhood he did not experience it himself. The king also wrote that in his actions he obeys the divine will.

> Ivan 4 equated the departure of Kurbsky with high treason (for the first time).

DOMOSTROY

In connection with the fact that it was necessary to raise the prestige of the new state, official literature was created, which regulated the spiritual, legal and everyday life of people. The largest work of that century was written by Metropolitan Macarius - Great Menaion Cheti

> The Great Menaion of the Honor of the Metropolitan of All Russia Macarius (1481/82-31.XII. 1563) is a book collection of 12 handwritten books, constituting an annual “reading circle” for almost every day, each of the 12 Menaia contains material for one of the months (starting from September). According to the plan of the initiator, the organizer of the correspondence and the editor of this book collection, Makariy, 12 folios of enormous volume and size were supposed to absorb “all the holy books of Chetya”, revered and read in Russia, thanks to which the Great Menaion of Chetya became a kind of encyclopedia of Russian book literature of the 16th century.

Domostroy- a monument of Russian literature of the 16th century, which is a collection of rules, advice and instructions in all areas of human and family life, including social, family, economic and religious issues. It is best known in the mid-16th century edition attributed to Archpriest Sylvester.

> Although Domostroy was a collection of tips on housekeeping, it was written in artistic language and became a literary monument of the era.

PAINTING OF RUSSIA

Despite some decline in the development of the country, Russian painting reached its peak by the 14th-15th centuries. In modern literature, this period is assessed as the Russian revival. At this time, a series of remarkable painters was working in Russia.

> At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries, a person from Byzantium worked in Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod. painter Theophanes the Greek.

He superbly combined the Byzantine tradition and the already established Russian one. Sometimes he worked in violation of the canons. His images are psychological, spiritual tension is conveyed in his icons. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyen Street in Novgorod, together with Semyon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399).

> The great Russian artist who worked during this period is Andrei Rublev.

He is a master of laconic, but very expressive composition. An amazing picturesque color is visible in his works. And in his icons and frescoes one can feel the ideal of moral perfection. At the same time, he was able to convey the subtle emotional experiences of the characters. He participated in the painting of the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405) together with Theophan the Greek and the prokhor from Gorodets, painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity - Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420).

HIS BRUSH BELONG TO THE MASTERPIECE OF WORLD PAINTING — THE ICON OF THE TRINITY.

The image reflects the biblical story, when the forefather Abraham received at home three travelers sent by God and who brought him news of the impending birth of his son. The first images of three angels at the table appeared in the Byzantine Empire of the 14th century, and were called Philoxenia (Greek - "hospitality") of Abraham.

One of the first who breathed a new Eucharistic meaning into this icon was the Russian icon painter, St. Andrei Rublev. He depicted the Three Angels as the three hypostases of God. The middle angel symbolizes the Son of God - Jesus Christ, the left - God the Father, the right - God - the Holy Spirit (the basis of such an interpretation of the icon in the clothes and disposition of the Angels), however, the same appearance of the Faces shows that the Holy Trinity is one and indivisible Whole. In front of the Angels is a cup - a symbol of Christ's sacrifice for our sins.

> At the end of the 15th century, an outstanding contribution to the development of Russian painting was made by the outstanding icon painter Dionysius. He was an excellent colorist and a very complex master. Together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir, as well as other students, he created frescoes of the Assumption Kremlin Cathedral.

Among his creations was the famous icon of the Savior in strength.

At the same time, the Novgorod icon-painting school also functions. It is distinguished by the brightness of colors and the dynamism of the composition.

ARCHITECTURE OF RUSSIA

In the 14th-16th century, in connection with the centralization of the state, Moscow was decorated (under Ivan Kalita, stone construction developed).

UNDER DMITRY DONSKOY, THE WHITE STONE KREMLIN WAS ERECTED FOR THE FIRST TIME.

During the yoke, a series of old Russian churches is being restored. Thanks to completions and rebuildings, there is a tendency towards the crystallization of the Russian national architectural style based on the synthesis of the traditions of the Kyiv and Vladimir-Suzdal lands, which in the future became a model for subsequent construction in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

On the advice of Sophia Paleolog (grandmother of Ivan IV the Terrible), masters from Italy were invited. The purpose of this is to display the power and glory of the Russian state. The Italian Aristotle Floravanti traveled to Vladimir, examined the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals. He successfully managed to combine the traditions of Russian and Italian architecture. In 1479 he successfully completed the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Following this, a granite chamber was built to receive foreign embassies.

> The appeal to national origins was especially clearly expressed in the stone architecture of the traditional Russian tent style, so characteristic of the wooden architecture of Russia.

The masterpieces of the tent style were the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Kremlin Square in Moscow. That is, their own architectural style appears.

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Magnitogorsk State University

Test

on the history of Russia

on the topic: Russian culture of the XIV - early XVI centuries

Completed by: Yakovleva O.V.

1st year student of OZO

Faculty of History

Checked: Surganov O.V.

Magnitogorsk

2000

Introduction

1. Russian culture of the XIV - mid-XV centuries

1.1 Book business

1.2 Literature. chronicle writing

1.3 Architecture

1.4 Painting

1.5 Accumulation of scientific knowledge

2. Russian culture of the 15th - early 16th centuries

2.1 Book business

2.2 Chronicle. Literature

2.3 Architecture

2.4 Painting

Conclusion

List of used sources and literature

Introduction

Russian culture painting chronicle

In the middle of the XIII century, Russia was subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which had disastrous consequences for its economy and culture. It was accompanied by the extermination and captivity of a significant part of the population, the destruction of material values, cities and villages. The Golden Horde yoke, which had been established for two and a half centuries, created extremely unfavorable conditions for the restoration and further development of the economy and culture.

As a result of the political events of the 13th-14th centuries, various parts of the ancient Russian people were divided, cut off from each other. Entry into different state formations made it difficult to develop economic and cultural ties between individual regions of the formerly united Russia, deepening the differences in language and culture that existed before. This led to the formation, on the basis of the ancient Russian nationality, of three fraternal nationalities - Russian (Great Russian), Ukrainian and Belarusian. The formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality, which began in the 14th and ended in the 16th century, was facilitated by the emergence of a common language (while maintaining dialectal differences in it) and culture, and the formation of a common state territory.

Two main, closely interconnected circumstances of the historical life of the people at that time determined the content of culture and the direction of its development: the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke and the struggle for the elimination of feudal fragmentation, the creation of a single state.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion led to a deepening of feudal fragmentation. In the culture of the disunited feudal principalities, along with separatist tendencies, unifying tendencies were more and more clearly manifested.

The idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land and the struggle against the foreign yoke became one of the leading in culture and a red thread runs through the works of oral folk art, writing, painting, architecture.

The culture of this time is also characterized by the idea of ​​the inseparable connection of Russia XIV - XV centuries with Kievan Rus and Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. This trend was clearly manifested in oral folk art, annals, literature, political thought, and architecture.

In this essay, we examined the development of Russian culture in the XIV - early 16th century. This period can be divided into two stages: XIV - the middle of the 15th century and the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. Within the first period, in turn, two stages of the historical and cultural process can be distinguished. The first of them (until about the middle of the 14th century) was marked by a noticeable decline in various areas of culture, although already from the end of the 13th century. there were signs of a renaissance. From the second half of the XIV century. - the second stage - the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over the conquerors in the Battle of Kulikovo, which was an important milestone on the path to liberating the country from foreign yoke. The Kulikovo victory caused an upsurge of national consciousness, which was reflected in all areas of culture. While maintaining significant local features in culture, the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land becomes the leading one.

The turn of the XV - XVI centuries is a turning point in the historical development of the Russian lands. Three interconnected phenomena are characteristic of this time: the formation of a unified Russian state, the liberation of the country from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the completion of the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) people. All of them had a direct impact on the spiritual life of Russia, on the development of its culture, predetermined the nature and direction of the historical and cultural process.

The overcoming of feudal fragmentation, the creation of a single state power created favorable conditions for the economic and cultural development of the country, served as a powerful stimulus for the rise of national self-consciousness. The beneficial influence of these factors affected the development of all Russian culture at the end of the 15th - the first half of the 16th century, manifesting itself especially clearly in socio-political thought and architecture.

And in the spiritual culture, the idea of ​​unity and the struggle for independence with foreign invaders continued to be one of the leading ones.

During the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Russia was isolated from the countries of Central and Western Europe, which had advanced in their development. For the Russian state, the establishment of ties with Western European culture was an important condition for overcoming backwardness and strengthening its position among European powers. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century, relations with Italy and other countries successfully developed, which had a beneficial effect on Russian culture, outstanding architects and other masters came to work in Russia.

The most important factor in the development of culture is the influence of the church on the spiritual life of society, the strength of its position in the state. Throughout the period under review, these relationships were far from uniform.

The development of progressive tendencies in culture, elements of a rationalistic worldview turned out to be associated with circles opposed to autocracy.

1. Russian culture of the XIV - mid-XV centuries

1. 1 Book business

Although the disastrous consequences of foreign invasions had a negative impact on the preservation of book wealth and on the level of literacy, nevertheless, the traditions of writing and literacy, established in the 11th-12th centuries, were preserved and further developed.

The rise of culture from the second half of the 14th century was accompanied by the development book business. The largest centers of book learning were monasteries, in which there were book-writing workshops and libraries with hundreds of volumes. The most significant were the book collections of the Trinity-Sergius, Kirillo-Belozersky and Solovetsky monasteries that have survived to our time. From the end of the XV century. the inventory of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery has come down to us (4, p. 67).

But the church did not have a monopoly on the creation and distribution of books. As evidenced by the postscripts of the scribes themselves on the books, a significant part of them did not belong to the clergy. Book writing workshops also existed in cities, at princely courts. Books were made, as a rule, to order, sometimes for sale.

The development of writing and book business was accompanied by changes in writing technique. In the XIV century. replaced expensive parchment came paper, which was delivered from other countries, mainly from Italy and France. Changed the graphics of the letter; instead of a strict "statutory" letter, the so-called semi-charter appeared, and from the 15th century. and "cursive", which speeded up the process of making a book. All this made the book more accessible and contributed to meeting the growing demand (9, p. 47).

Book production was dominated by liturgical books, the necessary set of which was in every religious institution - in the church, monastery. The nature of readers' interests reflected "four" books, i.e., books intended for individual reading. There were many such books in the monastic libraries. The most common type of "fourth" book in the XV century. have become collections of mixed composition, which researchers call "libraries in miniature".

The repertoire of the "fourth" collections is quite extensive. Along with translated patriotic and hagiographic works, they contained original Russian compositions; next to religious and edifying literature were works of a secular nature - excerpts from the annals, historical stories, journalism. The appearance in these collections of articles of a natural science nature is noteworthy. So, in one of the collections of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery of the beginning of the 15th century. articles "On the latitude and longitude of the earth", "On the stages and fields", "On the distance between heaven and earth", "Moon current", "On the earthly dispensation", etc. were placed. The author of these articles decisively broke with the fantastic ideas of church literature about the structure of the universe. The earth was recognized as a ball, although it was still placed in the center of the universe (4, p.32). In other articles, a completely realistic explanation of natural phenomena is given (for example, thunder and lightning, which, according to the author, come from the collision of clouds). Here are also articles on medicine, biology, extracts from the works of a Roman scientist and physician of the 2nd century BC. Galena.

The Russian book of the 14th-15th centuries played an outstanding role in the revival of literary monuments of the past and in the dissemination of contemporary works of deep ideological and political sound.

1. 2 Literature. chronicle writing

Russian literature of the 14th-15th centuries inherited from ancient Russian literature its sharp publicism, put forward the most important problems of the political life of Russia. It was closely connected with social and political life annals. Being historical works, the chronicles were at the same time political documents that played an important role in the ideological and political struggle (1, p.12).

In the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, chronicle writing experienced a decline. But it, interrupted for a while in some, resumed in new political centers. Chronicle writing was still distinguished by local features, great attention to local events, tendentious coverage of events from the positions of one or another feudal center. But the theme of the unity of the Russian land and its struggle against foreign invaders was a common thread in all chronicles.

At first, the Moscow chronicle also had a local character. , appeared in the first half of the 14th century. However, with the growth of the political role of Moscow, it gradually acquired a nationwide character. In the course of development, the Moscow chronicle became the focus of advanced political ideas. It not only reflected and ideologically consolidated Moscow's successes in the unification of the Russian lands, but also actively participated in this work, vigorously promoting unifying ideas.

The growth of national self-consciousness was evidenced by the revival all-Russian chronicle at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th centuries. The first all-Russian code, which broke with narrow local interests and took the position of the unity of Russia, was compiled in Moscow at the beginning of the 15th century (the so-called Trinity Chronicle, died during the Moscow fire of 1812). Moscow chroniclers did a great job of unifying and processing disparate regional vaults. Around 1418, with the participation of Metropolitan Photius, a compilation was undertaken new chronicle code (Vladimir Polychron), the main idea of ​​which was the union of the Moscow grand ducal power with the urban population of feudal centers in order to politically unify Russia. These vaults formed the basis of subsequent annalistic vaults. One of the most significant works of Russian chronicle writing was Moscow vault 1479 (1, p. 49).

All Moscow chronicles are permeated with the idea of ​​the need for state unity and strong grand ducal power. They clearly express the historical and political concept that developed at the beginning of the 15th century, according to which the history of Russia in the 14th-15th centuries is a direct continuation of the history of Ancient Russia. Chronicles promoted the later official idea that Moscow inherits the political traditions of Kyiv and Vladimir, is their successor. This was emphasized by the fact that the vaults began with The Tale of Bygone Years.

Unifying ideas that met the vital interests of various strata of feudal society were also developed in a number of other centers. Even in Novgorod, which was distinguished by particularly strong separatist tendencies, in the 30s of the 15th century, an all-Russian in character was created. Novgorod-Sofia vault, which included in its composition Photius' code. The all-Russian character was also tver chronicle, which promoted strong grand ducal power and noted the facts of the liberation struggle against the Golden Horde. But it clearly exaggerated the role of Tver and the princes of Tver in the unification of Russia (1, p. 50).

The central theme of literature was the struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders. Therefore, one of the most common genres was military story. The works of this genre were based on specific historical facts and events, and the characters were real historical figures.

An outstanding monument of narrative literature of the military genre is "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu". The main part of its content is the story of the capture and ruin of Ryazan by the Tatars and the fate of the princely family. The story condemns feudal strife as the main reason for the defeat of the Russians, and at the same time, from the point of view of religious morality, what is happening is assessed as a punishment for sins. This testifies to the desire of church ideologists to use the very fact of the catastrophe to propagate Christian ideas and strengthen the influence of the church.

The struggle against the Swedish and German feudal lords was reflected in the secular retinue story about Alexander Nevsky, which contained a detailed description of the Battle of the Neva and the "Battle on the Ice". But this story has not come down to us. It was reworked into the life of Alexander Nevsky and received a religious overtone. The story about the Pskov prince Dovmont, dedicated to the struggle of the Pskovites against the German and Lithuanian aggression, underwent a similar transformation (1, p. 52).

monument Tver literature the beginning of the XIV century is "The Tale of the Assassination of Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich in the Horde". This is a topical political work that had an anti-Moscow orientation. On the basis of an oral folk poetic work, the Tale of Shevkala was written, dedicated to the uprising in Tver in 1327.

The victory over the Mongol-Tatars on the Kulikovo field in 1380 caused a rise in national self-consciousness, inspired the Russian people with self-confidence. Under her influence, Kulikovo cycle works that are united by one main idea - about the unity of the Russian land as the basis of victory over the enemy. The four main monuments included in this cycle are different in character, style, and content. All of them speak of the Battle of Kulikovo as the greatest historical victory of Russia over the Tatars (4, p.24-25).

The most profound and significant work of this cycle is "Zadonshchina" - a poem written by Zephanius of Ryazan shortly after the Battle of Kulikovo. The author did not seek to give a consistent and detailed depiction of events. Its goal is to glorify the great victory over the hated enemy, to glorify its organizers and participants (4, p.345). The poem emphasizes the role of Moscow in organizing the victory, and presents Prince Dmitry Ivanovich as the true organizer of the Russian forces.

AT chronicle story about The Battle of Kulikovo for the first time is given a coherent story about the events of 1380. It emphasizes the unity and solidarity of the Russian forces around the Grand Duke, the campaign against the Tatars is regarded as an all-Russian affair. However, the story noticeably departs from real historical facts, which are comprehended from the point of view of religious morality: the ultimate cause of the defeat of the Tatars is "divine will"; in the spirit of religious concepts, the behavior of the Ryazan prince Oleg is condemned; Dmitry Donskoy is depicted as a Christian ascetic, endowed with piety, peacefulness and love of Christ.

"The Legend of the Mamaev Battle" - the most voluminous and most popular work of the Kulikovo cycle. It is ideologically and artistically contradictory; two different approaches to understanding events coexist in it. One side. The Kulikovo victory is regarded as a reward for the Christian virtues characteristic of Russians; on the other hand, a real view of things: the author of the "Tale" is well versed in the political situation of that time, highly appreciates the heroism and patriotism of the Russian people, the foresight of the Grand Duke, understands the significance of unity between princes. In the "Tale" the idea of ​​a close union of the church and princely power finds justification (description of the relationship between Dmitry Donskoy and Sergius of Radonezh) (4, p. 189).

Only in connection with the biography of Dmitry Donskoy is it said about the Battle of Kulikovo in "A word about the life and death of the Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich, Tsar of Russia". This is a solemn panegyric to the deceased prince, in which his deeds are praised and their significance for the present and future of Russia is determined. The image of Dmitry Ivanovich combines the features of an ideal hagiographic hero and an ideal statesman, emphasizing the Christian virtues of the prince. This reflected the desire of churchmen for a union with imperial power.

The events of 1382, when Tokhtamysh attacked Moscow, formed the basis of the story "On the Capture of Moscow from Tsar Tokhtamysh and the Captivity of the Russian Land." The story is characterized by such a feature as democracy, therefore it occupies a special place in the literature of the XIV-XV centuries, covering events from the standpoint of the broad masses, in this case the population of Moscow. It has no individual hero. Ordinary citizens who took over the defense of Moscow after the princes and boyars fled from it - this is the true hero of the story (9, p.53-54).

During the period under review, there was a great development life literature, a number of works of which are permeated with topical journalistic ideas. Church preaching in them was combined with the development of the idea of ​​the dominant role of Moscow and the close union of the princely power and the church (and the church power was given priority) as the main condition for the strengthening of Russia. In hagiographic literature, specific ecclesiastical interests were also reflected, which by no means always coincided with the interests of the grand duke's power. The Life of Metropolitan Peter, written by Metropolitan Cyprian, was of a journalistic nature, and he saw the common fate of Metropolitan Peter, who was not recognized as a prince of Tver in his time, with his own and with his complex relationship with the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich.

Widespread in hagiographic literature rhetorical panegyric style (or expressive-emotional style). The text included lengthy and ornate speeches-monologues, author's rhetorical digressions, reasoning of a moral and theological nature. Much attention was paid to describing the feelings of the hero, his state of mind, psychological motivations for the actions of the characters appeared. The expressive-emotional style reached the pinnacle of its development in the work of Epiphanius the Wise and Pachomius Logothetes.

1.3 Architecture

For half a century, stone construction in Russia ceased as a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. It resumed only at the end of the thirteenth century. Since that time, the traditions of regional architectural schools that developed in the previous period (2, p. 87).

One of the largest centers for the development of art in the XIV - XV centuries was Novgorod, experiencing an economic and political upsurge at that time. The high level of urban life, the peculiarities of the socio-political system of the Novgorod feudal republic determined the characteristic features novgorod art, the presence of a strong democratic stream in it. As before, Novgorod buildings were erected at the expense of individual boyars, merchant associations and collectives of "convicts", and they reflected the tastes of customers.

Based on the traditions of pre-Mongolian architecture, Novgorod architects searched for new artistic and construction-technical solutions. The direction of these searches was determined already in the very first building erected after a significant break - in the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipno (1292). The architects have introduced a lot of new things into the traditional type of a four-pillar one-domed temple of a cubic shape. They replaced the roof with three lobes, abandoned the segmentation of the facades with blades, reduced the number of apses from three to one, lowering it to half the height of the temple. This gave the building massiveness and solidity. Novgorod builders switched to masonry from roughly hewn limestone slabs using boulders and partly bricks, which further enhanced the impression of strength and power. Here, a characteristic feature of Novgorod art was clearly manifested (2, p. 45).

New searches and old traditions were reflected in the Church of the Savior on Kovalev (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field (1352). This is an intermediate link in the process of folding that style in Novgorod architecture, which is represented by buildings of the second half of the 14th century. The classic examples of this style are the Church of Fyodor Stratilat (1360-1361) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyina Street (1374). A characteristic feature of this style is the elegant external decoration of the temples. Their facades are decorated with decorative niches, triangular depressions, sculptural inset crosses. Many niches were filled with frescoes.

In the future, the new architectural style remained almost unchanged. Moreover, in the 15th century, a desire to reproduce the architectural forms of the 12th century manifested itself. This revival of cultural traditions manifested the separatism of the Novgorod aristocracy, their desire to preserve the "old times and customs" of the independent Novgorod boyar republic (2, pp. 46-47).

Large-scale civil construction was also carried out in Novgorod. In the Kremlin in 1433, German and Novgorod craftsmen built a faceted chamber intended for ceremonial receptions and meetings of the Council of Lords. In the sovereign's courtyard, the Clock Ringer (1443) was erected - an octagonal tower on a rectangular base. Some Novgorod boyars built for themselves stone chambers with box vaults. In 1302, a stone citadel was laid in Novgorod, which was subsequently rebuilt several times. The fortifications of Staraya Ladoga, Porkhov, Koporye, Pit, Nut were erected (2, p. 47).

Originality differed architecture of Pskov separated from Novgorod in the middle of the 14th century and became the center of an independent feudal republic. The people of Pskov achieved great success in fortification construction. Stone walls were erected in 1330 Izborsk - one of the largest military installations of Ancient Russia. In Pskov itself, a large stone Kremlin was built, the total length of the walls of which was about nine kilometers. The entire architecture of Pskov had a fortified appearance, the buildings were severe and laconic, almost devoid of decorative attire.

Stone belfries, which consisted of several spans, are characteristic of Pskov architecture. The Pskov craftsmen developed a special system of overlapping the building with mutually intersecting arches, which made it possible later to free the temple from the pillars. This technique played a significant role in the creation of the type of a small pillarless "townsman" church. The Pskov architects won all-Russian fame with their skill. They played a big role in Moscow construction in the 15th-16th centuries.

The first city of North-Eastern Russia, which resumed stone building, was Tver. Here, in 1285-1290, the Cathedral of the Transfiguration of the Savior was built - a six-pillar cross-domed church, decorated with white stone reliefs. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir served as a model for it. At the beginning of the XIV century, another stone church was built, but then a long break in construction followed, caused by the weakening of Tver as a result of its defeat after the uprising of 1327. Only from the end of the XIV century did its new rise come. From the Tver buildings of that time, the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the village of Gorodnya on the Volga has come down to us (2, p. 48).

Start stone construction in Moscow belongs to the second quarter of the 14th century. Under Ivan Kalita, four stone churches were built in the Moscow Kremlin: the Assumption Cathedral, the churches of Ivan Lestvichnik and the Savior on Bor, and the Archangel Cathedral. None of them has survived to our time, but there is reason to believe that they were built in the spirit of the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture. Several stones that survived from the Church of the Savior on Bor testify that it was decorated with carvings.

In 1367, a stone Kremlin, the only one in the entire North-Eastern Russia of that time. This testified to the growth of the political power of Moscow. On the eve of the Battle of Kulikovo, the Assumption Cathedral was built in Kolomna, which was larger than all Moscow churches. The oldest surviving monuments of Moscow architecture are the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod (about 1400), the Cathedral of Savvin Storozhevsky Monastery near Zvenigorod (1405) and the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422) (3, p.24).

The models for them were the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl and the Dmitrievsky Cathedral in Vladimir, although the buildings of the early 15th century are more squat and severe, and their decoration is more modest. The emphasized interest in the architecture of Vladimir was determined by the political idea of ​​the Vladimir heritage, which permeated all Moscow politics and was reflected in other areas of culture.

This does not mean at all that Moscow architects only copied existing samples. They showed particular interest in the development and creation of a new, upward-looking composition of the entire temple building. This was achieved due to the stepped arrangement of vaults and the placement of several rows of kokoshniks at the base of the drum. The desire to overcome "cubicity" and give the whole composition dynamism was especially clearly manifested in the cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (circa 1427). This trend became the leading one in Moscow architecture.

1.4 Painting

The second half of the XIV - the beginning of the XV centuries is called the "golden age" wall painting Ancient Russia. Successfully developing Novgorod monumental painting, based on local traditions and using the achievements of Byzantine art. made a great contribution to its development Theophanes the Greek, who worked first in Novgorod, and then in Moscow. He came from Byzantium to Russia in the 70s of the XIV century as a mature painter and gave his skills to his new homeland. Theophan's best work, which most fully reveals the originality and power of his work, is the fresco painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyina Street. Theophanes the Greek is characterized by a bold painting style, freedom in dealing with iconographic traditions, virtuosity in performance, interest in character, the inner world of a person (6, p. 54). In his characters, he embodied the spirituality of a person, the strength of his inner emotionality, the desire for the sublime. The stormy, temperamental painting of Feofan is a vivid manifestation of the expressive-emotional style in Russian art of this time.

The frescoes of Theophan the Greek in the Church of the Savior on Ilyin are close in the manner of execution of the frescoes of the Church of Theodore Stratilat. Some researchers consider them the work of Theophanes, others - the work of his students (6, p.54).

A remarkable monument of Novgorod art was the complex of frescoes of the Volotovo Church (died during the Great Patriotic War), which vividly manifested the freedom of artistic creativity, the desire to overcome the traditional canons of church painting. These frescoes were distinguished by extreme dynamics in the construction of the composition, deep emotional richness.

The frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Kovalev, which are characterized by features of asceticism, look different. Researchers see in them the influence of the South Slavic artistic tradition and believe that they were painted by Serbian artists.

In the 15th century, monumental painting more and more assimilated the dogmatic features of the official church ideology. But in Novgorod, icon painting still remained associated with democratic circles, as evidenced by the simplicity of interpretation of plots, the wide distribution of icons of saints popular among the people, who assumed the functions of pagan deities - patrons of various economic activities. The narrow scope of religious themes expanded.

Reached high prosperity painting in Moscow at the end of the 14th - beginning of the 15th century. Here, at this time, the Russian national school of painting was finally taking shape, the most prominent representative of which was the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev. His predecessor in painting Moscow churches was Theophanes the Greek, who moved to Moscow in the 1990s. Moscow paintings by Theophanes have not been preserved.

Andrei Rublev was born around 1360. He was a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, and then Spaso-Andronikov. In 1405, together with Theophan the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets, he painted the walls of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin. In 1408 Rublev, together with Daniel Cherny worked on the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, and then they decorated the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery with frescoes and icons. At the end of his life, A. Rublev painted the cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery. Andrei Rublev died around 1430 and was buried in the Andronikov Monastery (9, p.58).

The earliest known works by Rublev are considered to be the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, created by him together with Daniil Cherny. One of them is "The Procession of the Righteous to Paradise". These works revealed the characteristic features of the Rublev style, which is characterized by lyrical tranquility. Rublev's characters are softer, more humane than in Feofan's painting.

The most famous work of Rublev - icon "Trinity" - written by him for the iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral. It expresses the humanistic idea of ​​consent and philanthropy with rare artistic power, and gives a generalized ideal of moral perfection and purity. The images of the Archangel Gabriel and the Apostle Paul from the same iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral are remarkable in terms of the depth of their psychological characteristics and the skill of execution. The national character of Rublev's work found a particularly vivid expression in his "Spas" from Zvenigorod.

In the work of A. Rublev, wrote the researcher of ancient Russian art V.N. Lazarev, "the process of separation of Russian painting from Byzantine, which was outlined already in the 12th century and developed in a continuous increase until the 15th century, receives its logical conclusion. Rublev finally abandons the Byzantine severity and Byzantine asceticism He extracts from the Byzantine heritage its ancient Hellenistic core... He translates the colors of Russian nature into the high language of art, giving them in such impeccably correct combinations that they have, like the creation of a great musician, absolute purity of sound "(9, C .59).

1. 5 Accumulation of scientific knowledge

Russia was by no means entirely illiterate. Knowledge of writing, counting was required in many branches of economic and other activities. Birch bark letters from Novgorod and other centers, various written records (chronicles, stories, etc.), inscriptions on handicraft products (coins, seals, bells, weapons, jewelry, art casting, etc.) indicate that literate people have never been transferred to Russia, and not only among monks, but also among artisans and merchants. There were also among the boyars and nobles. Wealthy people kept written records of their households; from the 16th century, various kinds of accounting books, documents of spiritual cloisters - monasteries, copies from documents of earlier times have been preserved (7, p.67).

At the disposal of scientists, despite all the losses of the Batu era and the later Horde "armies", there is still a lot of handwritten material for the XIV-XVI centuries. These are documents (spiritual letters, treaties of great, including Moscow, and specific princes, economic acts of the Russian metropolis, episcopal departments, monasteries), lives of saints, chronicles, and much more. There are manuals on grammar, arithmetic, herbal treatment (alphabetics, herbalists, etc.).

Practical observations were accumulated, knowledge of construction techniques (it was necessary when erecting buildings), dynamics (calculations of the flight range of stones, cannonballs from wall-beating and other devices; from cannons that appeared at the end of the 14th century), applied physics (minting coins, casting cannons, assembling and repairing watch mechanisms), applied chemistry (making paints, inks). arithmetic and geometry (description of lands, trade affairs, etc.).

Descriptions of natural phenomena (eclipses, earthquakes, etc.) are quite frequent in chronicles. Translated works were popular - "Christian topography" by Kozma Indikoplova (a traveler of the 6th century), "Shestodnev" by John, Exarch of Bulgaria, "Gromnik", etc. Astronomical observations are given in Russian manuscript collections; medical - in the same annals (description of diseases). And the collection of the XV century, released from the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery, included comments by Galen, a Roman scientist of the II century AD, to the work of Hippocrates, the ancient Greek “father of medicine” (V-IV centuries BC). Of outstanding importance for its time was the “Book of Coal Letters” (mid-14th century) - it describes how to calculate land areas and taxes from them (6, p. 78).

The circle of geographical knowledge was expanded by Russian travelers. They left descriptions of their travels. Such are the Novgorodian Stefan, who visited Constantinople (mid-14th century); Grigory Kalika (probably visited the same city in the 14th century; later, under the name of Vasily Kalika, he became the Novgorod archbishop); Deacon of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Zosima (Constantinople, Palestine, 1420); Suzdal monk Simeon (Ferrara, Florence, 1439); the famous Athanasius Nikitin, Tver merchant (India, 1466-1472). Russian people, penetrating to the north, to Siberia, made descriptions, "drawings" of the lands they saw; ambassadors - article lists with information about foreign states.

2. Russian culture of the 15th - early 16th centuries

2.1 Book business

During the period under review, more widespread handwritten book. The main centers for storing books continued to be monasteries, which had significant libraries. They collected mainly church literature, but there were also books of secular content: chronicles, chronographs, legends, stories, but books, judging by the owner's records on some of them, were not only in monasteries, but also in boyar estates, with townspeople and even among the peasants. (7, p.89).

The production of handwritten books was mainly concentrated in the monastic scriptorium workshops, although professional scribes in the cities and even in the countryside were also engaged in their correspondence. Books were sold in the markets. Stoglavy Cathedral, in order to protect the market from manuscripts of undesirable content, by a special decision banned the sale of manuscripts without prior verification by clergy. In this, as in other resolutions of the Stoglavy Cathedral, the desire of the church to establish control over spiritual culture was manifested. In connection with the increased need for a book, the process of writing accelerated: cursive writing became established not only in business writing, but also in book writing.

The largest event in the history of Russian culture was the emergence typography. Printing corresponded to state needs, served to strengthen autocratic power, and strengthened the role of the church. The church liturgical book was one of the means of spreading the official ideology. Therefore, book printing in Russia began at the initiative of the government, supported by the church.

The first attempts at printing in Russia date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553. The first editions were anonymous, that is, they did not contain the names of the publishers, imprint. There are currently seven such editions. Their imperfection suggests that they were created during the formation of the printing business. There is no information about the first printers yet. Book printing began to develop most vividly in the second half of the 16th century, when printing house in Moscow (9, p.63).

2. 2 Chronicle. Literature

The journalistic content, as before, was imbued with traditional literary genres. There are actually journalistic works in the form of messages and letters, intended not for one addressee, but for a wide audience.

The goals of the ideological justification of autocracy were subordinated historical essays, primarily annals. In this regard, the official character of chronicle writing has significantly increased. The Middle Ages are generally characterized by an appeal to historical material to substantiate certain political positions. Chronicle writing became a state matter and, as a rule, was associated with government circles. The previous chronicles included in the annals were subjected to certain processing for political purposes.

Of great cultural significance was the compilation undertaken on the initiative and under the leadership of Metropolitan Macarius. "Great Fourth Menaion". Macarius set a goal to collect together "all the books of four, even in the Russian land are found." A large team of writers, editors, copyists has been working on the implementation of this plan for more than 20 years. As a result, a huge vault original and translated literary monuments, consisting of twelve large format volumes (more than 27 thousand pages). It included essays intended for "spiritual" reading, their composition was selected and approved by the church and was supposed to regulate the annual "reading circle" for each day (5, p.45).

All material in this code is arranged by month. Each volume includes the lives of all the saints, whose memory is celebrated in a given month, and all the literature directly or indirectly related to these saints: the writings of the Greek "fathers of the church" and Russian church writers, epistles of metropolitans, church charters, letters. It also included collections popular in Russia "Bee", "Golden Chain", "Izmaragd"; in addition to them, the "Tale of the Devastation of Jerusalem" by Josephus Flavius, "Cosmography" by Kosma Indikoplov, "The Journey" by Abbot Daniel, and others. Of course, not all works read in Russia in the 16th century are included in this collection. There are no annals and chronographs, as well as works recognized by the church as "not useful." Nevertheless, the "Great Honors - Menaia" is the most valuable monument of Russian culture; this is the most valuable collection of works of literature until the middle of the 16th century: many of them survived only because they got into this code (5, p. 46).

2. 3 Architecture

Since the end of the 15th century, a new stage has begun in the development of Russian architecture. The improvement of urban crafts, the increase in the financial resources of the state were the material prerequisites for the expansion of the scale of stone construction, both in the religious and in the civil sphere. The innovation of this time was the spread of brick and terracotta, brickwork displaced the traditional white stone. The growth of brick production and its use in construction opened up new technical and artistic possibilities for architects.

The unification of Russian lands in a single state destroyed the isolation of local architectural schools, contributed to their mutual penetration, mutual enrichment and the formation on this basis of an all-Russian architectural style that combined simplicity of construction with increased external decorativeness (2, p. 132).

Moscow became the all-Russian art center. The grandiose construction that unfolded in it attracted the best specialists from other feudal centers. Italian masters were invited to Moscow - Aristotle Fioravanti, Anton Fryazin, Marco Ruffo, Pietro Antonio Solari, Aleviz Novy and others, who introduced Russian masters to the architectural and construction techniques of the Italian Renaissance.

Since Moscow became the all-Russian capital, it was completely rebuilt the Moscow Kremlin, the ensemble of which received its final design at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. The appearance of the residence of the "sovereign of all Russia" had to correspond to the increased importance and authority of the grand duke's power. The restructuring of the Kremlin began with the construction of the Assumption Cathedral, entrusted to Aristotle Fioravanti. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir served as a model for him. However, the Moscow Assumption Cathedral (1475-1479) was not a simple imitation of the model. Aristotle Fioravanti managed to create a completely new, original work in which the traditions of Russian architecture were enriched with elements of Italian architecture. Simple and clear in its forms, but at the same time grandiose and solemn. The Assumption Cathedral has become a classic example of monumental church architecture of the 16th century. The five domes that crowned the cathedral became widespread in the construction of other church buildings (3, p. 145).

The Annunciation Cathedral, built by Pskov craftsmen in 1484-1489 and being part of the Grand Duke's palace complex, is associated with Russian architectural traditions. Its appearance combines Pskov, Vladimir-Suzdal and early Moscow features,

In 1505-1508, Aleviz Novy built the Archangel Cathedral, in the external appearance of which the secular features already outlined in the architecture of the Assumption Cathedral were clearly expressed. Having retained the main structure (a cube crowned with five domes), Aleviz Novy departed from ancient Russian traditions in the exterior decoration of the cathedral, using magnificent architectural details of the Italian Renaissance.

In addition to religious buildings, secular buildings were also erected in the Kremlin. A new grand-ducal palace is being built, which, according to old traditions, consisted of separate buildings interconnected by passages, porches, and vestibules. The Faceted Chamber (Marco Ruffo and Pietro Latopio Solari, (1487-1491) has survived from this palace. It served as a throne room, in which solemn palace ceremonies and receptions of foreign ambassadors took place. The chamber is a spacious square room with a powerful pillar in the middle, on which is supported by four cross vaults. In 1485, the construction of brick walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin began. At the same time, the architects solved not only fortification, but also artistic tasks. The walls and towers of the Kremlin, along with the rest of its buildings, made up a single picturesque ensemble. Its architectural center was the built in 1505-1508, the pillar-shaped church-bell tower of Ivan Lestvichnik (Ivan the Great) In this ensemble, the idea of ​​greatness and strength of the united Russian state was embodied (3, p.149).

Other cities followed the example of Moscow. Cathedrals in Volokolamsk, Dmitrov, Uglich, Rostov, as well as large monasteries: Pafnutyevo-Borovsky, Kirillo-Belogorsky, Novgorod Khutypsky, Mozhaysky Luga and others were erected on the model of the Moscow Cathedrals of the Assumption and the Akhangelsk. Stone palaces also appeared in the specific capitals. From the palace built in Uglich at the end of the 15th century, the main chamber, built of brick and richly decorated with patterned brickwork in the upper part of the pediments, has been preserved.

In religious architecture, in addition to the creation of monumental cathedrals on the model of Moscow, there was another direction associated with the construction of small township and patrimonial churches. The invention of a new system of brick floors - the so-called cross vault - led to the emergence new type buildings - small pillarless temple with a single undivided space. Secular elements were more clearly manifested in the township churches.

As early as the 15th century, the desire of Russian architects to give the building a dynamic upward aspiration was revealed (for example, the Cathedral of the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery). This found expression also in the construction of pillar-shaped churches. Further development of this trend, the search for new architectural forms led to the emergence tent style in Russian architecture. In the tent buildings, the national identity of Russian architecture was most clearly expressed. The tent style decisively broke with the traditional cross-domed type of church adopted from Byzantium. The introduction of this purely Russian form into church construction was an important victory for the folk principle in architecture, one of the sources of which was Russian folk wooden architecture: tent churches were built "for wooden work", i.e. modeled on wooden hipped buildings (3, p.112). The appearance of this style is the highest achievement of Russian architecture of the 16th century.

The most outstanding stone monument tent architecture - Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, erected in 1532. The idea of ​​aspiration upwards, rise, embodied in the Church of the Ascension, reflected the spiritual atmosphere of the first half of the 16th century, the growth of national self-consciousness, the feelings and moods of people of that time. The chronicler expressed the admiration of his contemporaries for this building in the following words: "..because that church was wonderful in height and lordship, such was not the case before in Russia" (5, p. 98).

The Cathedral of the Intercession "on the Moat", erected in honor of the capture of Kazan, is a group of ten pillar-like temples placed on a common pedestal - a high basement - and united by internal passages and an external gallery - a walkway. The central temple is crowned with a large tent, around which are the domes of eight aisles. All of them have the shape of an "octagon", coming from the traditions of wooden architecture. The architectural and decorative decoration of the building is unusually rich and varied. The small internal area of ​​the building (no more than 5-6 people can fit in separate aisles), its magnificent exterior decoration and picturesque composition suggest that the Intercession Cathedral was designed for external perception, it was more like a memorial temple than a place of worship. The union on a common basis of nine different, dissimilar churches symbolized the unification of Russian lands and principalities in a single state (3, p. 157-158).

In the 16th century, a huge scale was fortress building, which reflected achievements in the field of military engineering. But at the same time, practical problems of urban planning were also solved. The fortifications of this time are integral architectural ensembles, they played a big role in shaping the appearance of cities, determined their general layout.

In the years 1508-1511. the stone walls of the Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin were erected. Then the Kremlin was built in Tula (1514), Kolomna (1525-1531), Zaraysk (1531), Serpukhov (1556) and other cities, the walls of the Novgorod Kremlin were reconstructed. In Moscow in 1535-1538. a second line of fortifications was erected, encircling the trade and craft district of the capital. China town. Many monasteries also became powerful fortresses: stone walls and towers of the Trinity-Sergius, Kirillo-Belozersky, Solovetsky, Pafnutyevo-Borovsky, Joseph-Volokolamsky and other monasteries were built (3, p.158).

The grandiose fortress construction required huge material resources and a large amount of labor .... "

Among all types of art, architecture in the 16th century received the greatest development, made a huge step forward, which predetermined the subsequent development of Russian architecture.

2. 4 Painting

The political and ideological situation of the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries affected the development painting. The largest representative of the Moscow school of painting in the last quarter of the 15th - early 16th centuries was Dionysius(c. 1440-1502 or 1503). Contemporaries called him an artist, "notorious more than anyone", that is, the most famous. He painted a number of icons, part of the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, painted the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin of the Ferapontov Monastery. His works are characterized by a refined pattern, exquisite coloring, and magnificent decorative effect. They are permeated with moods of solemn festivity, bright joy, consonant with the spirit of the times (6, p.143).

The painting of the 16th century is characterized by an expansion of the range of topics, an increase in interest in non-ecclesiastical topics from world and especially Russian history. The official ideology exerted an increasing influence on the ideological content of painting. The glorification and exaltation of the royal power and the church became the main theme of the work of the masters who carried out the orders of the Grand Duke and Metropolitan.

The official state idea about the historical succession of power of the Moscow princes from the princes of Vladimir and Kyiv, and through them - from the Byzantine emperors was embodied in the painting of the Annunciation Cathedral, made under the direction of Feodosia, son of Dionysius. Byzantine emperors and empresses and the most revered Russian princes are depicted here (6, p. 144).

The same idea was reflected in the murals of the Golden Chamber of the Kremlin Palace (1547-1552) that have not survived, but are known from the description of the 17th century. Along with biblical stories and parables used to glorify the activities of Ivan the Terrible in an allegorical form, the themes of Russian history were widely presented in it: the adoption of Christianity in Kievan Rus, the legendary wedding of Prince Vladimir with the crown of Monomakh, etc. Allegorical figures were also depicted here - "Chastity", "Reason", "Truth", etc. (6, p. 149)

The regulation of artistic creativity, its subordination to church canons had a negative impact on the development of painting. However, the church could not completely stop this process. And in these difficult conditions, new trends made their way, albeit with great difficulty. They are more noticeable in the works of masters associated with township circles, and primarily in the cities of the middle Volga region - Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod (7, p. 212). There was a process of accumulation of elements of a new direction in painting, which clearly manifested itself in the next, XVII century.

Conclusion

Thus, culture in the XIV - early XVI century. developed in complex and contradictory conditions. The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke slowed down the pace and course of development of the ancient Russian people. And only the high level of Russian culture gave her the opportunity to survive in the most difficult period of her history. Despite the horrors of the Mongol conquest, Russian culture retained its traditional character. A large role in the transfer of traditions and cultural and historical experience was played by territories that were not subjected to military defeat, although they were subordinate to the Horde (Pskov, Novgorod).

If the beginning of the XIV century is characterized by stagnation and decline after the terrible blow of the Mongol hordes, then after 1380 its dynamic rise begins, in which the beginning of the merging of local art schools into a general Moscow, all-Russian culture can be traced.

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The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the invasion of the German knights brought the country to the brink of death.

Literature of the 13th century characterized by tragic pathos and the rise of national-patriotic sentiments. About fierce battles with the invaders and the terrible devastation of the Russian land, chronicles tell about the battle on the river. Kalke "Word about the destruction of the Russian land", "The Life of Alexander Nevsky". The memory of the invasion of Russia was preserved in the works of a later time “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu” (XIV century), “Kitezhnaya Legend”. The last historical and cultural monument is a cycle of legends about the legendary city of Kitezh, which sank into Lake Svetloyar and thus escaped devastation by the Mongol-Tatars. The cycle was composed over many centuries and finally took shape in the Old Believer “Book, verbal chronicler” (end of the 18th century).

From the 2nd half of the XIV century. the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over foreign invaders in the Battle of Kulikovo. After this historical event, old cities are being revived and new ones are developing - centers of economic life and culture.

Moscow leads the struggle for the unification of the Russian lands, its influence as one of the cultural centers is growing.

The most outstanding work of this time, Zadonshchina (beyond the Don), is dedicated to the victory at the Kulikovo field. This work was written in the genre of a historical story by Ryazan Zephanius in the 80s. 14th century The author compares the events of his contemporary life with the events described in the Tale of Igor's Campaign. The victory on the Kulikovo field is, as it were, revenge for the defeat of the troops of Igor Svyatoslavovich. This victory restored the glory and power of the Russian land.

Architecture was widely developed, primarily in Novgorod and Pskov, cities politically less dependent on the Mongol khans. In the XIV-XV centuries. Novgorod was one of the largest centers for the development of art, economic and political life.

Russian architects continued the traditions of architecture of the pre-Mongolian period (continuity of cultures). They used masonry of roughly hewn limestone slabs, boulders and partly bricks. Such masonry created the impression of strength and power (and this corresponds to the Russian character). Academician I. E. Grabar noted this feature of Novgorod art: “The ideal of a Novgorodian is strength, and his beauty is the beauty of strength.”

The result of new searches for the traditions of old architecture is the Church of the Savior on Kovalev (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field (1352). Samples of the new style are the Church of Theodore Stratilates (1361) and the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior (1374). This style is characterized by elegant external decoration of temples, decoration of facades with decorative niches, sculptural crosses, and niches with frescoes. The Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior, built in Novgorod, is a typical cross-domed church with four powerful pillars and one dome.

Simultaneously with the temple, civil construction was also carried out. The Chamber of Facets was built in Novgorod (1433). Novgorod boyars built stone chambers for themselves. In 1302, a stone Kremlin was laid in Novgorod.

Another major economic and cultural center at that time was Pskov. The city looked like a fortress. The architecture of the buildings is severe and laconic, almost completely devoid of decorative ornaments. The length of the walls of the large stone Kremlin was nine kilometers. Pskov craftsmen won great fame in Russia and had a great influence on Moscow construction.

In Moscow, stone construction began in the 2nd quarter of the 14th century. (construction of the white-stone fortress of the Moscow Kremlin). The Kremlin was constantly built and expanded.

Construction was underway in other cities. The largest building of that time was the Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna - on a high basement, with a gallery.

A new direction in Moscow architecture was the desire to overcome the "cubic" and create a new, upward-looking composition of the building due to the stepped arrangement of vaults.

History of Russian painting of the XIV-XV centuries. as well as architecture, became a natural continuation of the history of painting of the pre-Mongolian period.

Icon painting is developing in Novgorod and Pskov. Novgorod icons of this period are characterized by a laconic composition, a clear drawing, purity of colors, and impeccable technique.

Wall painting in Russia of this time belongs to the golden age. Along with icon painting, fresco was widely used - painting on wet plaster with paints diluted in water. In the XIV century. fresco painting takes shape compositionally, the landscape is introduced, the psychologism of the image is enhanced.

A special place among the artists of the XIV-XV centuries. occupied by the brilliant Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340 - after 1405). The works of Theophanes the Greek - frescoes, icons are distinguished by their monumentality, strength and dramatic expressiveness of images, bold and free pictorial manner. He embodied in his works the spirituality of man, his inner strength. Together with Andrei Rublev, they paint the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405).

Another famous master of this time is the great Russian artist Andrei Rublev (c. 1360/70 - c. 1430). His work marked the rise of Russian culture during the creation of a centralized Russian state and the rise of Moscow. Under him, the Moscow school of painting flourishes. The works of Andrey Rublev are distinguished by deep humanity, spirituality of images, the idea of ​​concord and harmony, and the perfection of the artistic form.

His most famous work is the icon "Trinity". In this masterpiece we see the expression of a deep humanistic idea of ​​consent and philanthropy, harmony.

Culture of Russia at the end of the 15th–16th centuries.

For the historical and cultural development of Russian lands, the period of the end of the XV-XVI centuries. was a turning point. The formation of a single Russian state continued, the country finally freed itself from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the formation of the Russian nationality was completed. All this had a significant impact on the formation of cultural processes.

Secular and democratic elements are growing in Russian culture.

Works appear in the literature that support the new state policy. The theory of the origin of the Russian state found its expression in the "Tale of the Princes of Vladimir". It stated that the Russian sovereigns trace their origins to the Roman Emperor Augustus. This idea was supported by the church, which also linked it with the concept of "Moscow - the Third Rome". The economic and political achievements of Russia at that time had a noticeable impact on raising the level of literacy and education. Literacy was taught in private schools mainly by priests and deacons. In schools they studied the Psalter, and in some - elementary grammar and arithmetic.

An important role in the history of Russian culture was played by the appearance typography. Its first attempts date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553. 1563 was built first printing house in Moscow. Printing became a state monopoly. The printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. In 1564 the first Russian printed book “ Apostle».

Among the literary monuments of that time is a huge 10-volume collection of church literature "Monthly Readings". These are the biographies of Russian saints written by Metropolitan Macarius, compiled by months in accordance with the days of honoring each saint.

Generalizing annalistic works are created, for example, the Front Chronicle - a kind of world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century. A monument of Russian historical literature is also the "Book of Powers", compiled by Ivan IV's confessor Andrei. It outlines Russian history from Vladimir I to Ivan IV.

The set of everyday rules and instructions contains " Domostroy". He defended the patriarchal way of life in the family. The book gave advice on how to be frugal and so on.

Architecture of the period of the XV - XVI centuries. reflected the growing international role of the Russian state. A new stage is beginning in both temple and civil architecture.

The creation of the Russian centralized state was marked by the construction on the site of the old new Kremlin, the ensemble of which finally took shape in the late 15th - early 16th centuries. At this time, bricks began to be used in construction. Brickwork replaced the traditional white stone. In 1485 - 1495. The white stone walls of the Kremlin were replaced with brick ones.

In 1475 - 1479. A new Assumption Cathedral was built, which became a classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century.

In 1484 - 1489. Annunciation Cathedral was built - the home church of the Grand Dukes.

In 1505 - 1508. The Archangel Cathedral was built, in the external appearance of which the secular style of architecture was clearly expressed. The Archangel Cathedral was a tomb temple, where all the great princes were transferred, starting with Ivan Kalita, and then the kings (until Peter I).

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin, for example, the Faceted Chamber, which was intended for ceremonial receptions.

The highest achievement of Russian architecture of the XVI century. was the construction of the temple tent type, which most clearly expressed the national identity of Russian traditions. An example of a hipped temple was the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral). The cathedral was built in 1555-1560. Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan.

In the XVI century. "fortification construction" gained enormous scope.

A line of fortifications was erected in Moscow (Kitay-Gorod, then Bely Gorod). These works were supervised by the famous master Fedor Kon, he also built the Smolensk Kremlin.

Painting of the period of the late XV - XVI centuries. represented by the works of the talented Russian artist Dionisy. He painted the Assumption Cathedral.

Gradually, the range of painting themes is expanding, and interest in non-church subjects, especially historical ones, is growing. The genre of historical portrait is developing.

The painting of this period is characterized by a growing interest in real historical figures and events.

According to academician D.S. Likhachev, “of all the periods in the history of Russian culture, it is precisely the XV-XVI centuries. are especially important. It was then that the interrupted process of creating a single state was restored and culture was revived ... "