Natural and climatic conditions. Natural conditions and natural resources of Russia: description, assessment

The influence of natural and climatic conditions on the architectural and planning solutions of residential buildings

The architectural and planning solution of residential buildings should provide not only comfortable, but also healthy conditions for human life.

Sanitary requirements suitable for one climate may be completely unacceptable for other climatic regions, therefore, when designing buildings in general, and especially residential ones, one should carefully take into account the climatic features of the area, using positive sides its natural conditions and overcoming the negative ones.

Climatic zoning:

I region - the coldest

Ural, Northern, Central and Eastern Siberia, Far East;

II region - moderate

It includes the territory of the European part;

III region - warm;

IV region - hot

southeastern coast of the Black Sea, Transcaucasia.

The construction organization must take into account climatic conditions, which are subdivided into four climatic regions (I, II, III and IV).Climatic regions have sub-regions A, B, C, D. On the territory of the Russian Federation (RF) are located I, II and III climatic regions, IV climatic region located in Transcaucasia, Crimea and Central Asia (Table 1). climatic regions located from north to south approximately: I- up to 70 ° north latitude, II- up to 60°, III- up to 45°, IV- below 45°.

Table 1. Climatic regions

"Natural and climatic factors and man-made phenomena"

waterlogged seismic

flooding vibration

ravines

karst landslides and screes

erosion of the coast, watercourses avalanches

and reservoirs

These 4 climatic regions include 16 microclimatic subregions. In accordance with this zoning, the material and thickness of the fence, the depth of the foundation are assigned, the structures are calculated according to wind and snow loads, and the space-planning structure is determined.

The leading climate factors are radiation-temperature conditions (INSOLATION). Insolation conditions develop depending on the orientation of the window of apartments on the sides of the horizon, the types of house planning, the distance between buildings.

In relation to the cardinal points, buildings can occupy 3 main positions:

meridional - the building with its longitudinal axis parallel to the north-south direction;

latitudinal - this axis is parallel to the direction "west-east";

diagonal - the longitudinal axis is directed at an angle to the main directions.

Construction of buildings in special conditions.

*In the conditions of the north and permafrost soils.

Special construction conditions:

the duration of the winter period is 200÷305 days, with low negative temperatures;

permafrost state of soils;

strong winds;

low development of the territory;

poor development of the construction industry;

nature of seismicity.

All this causes additional requirements for erected buildings and structures:

planning of buildings - arrangement of a snow-protective front (Fig. a), through transfer of snow (Fig. b), giving buildings a streamlined shape (Fig. c):

space-planning solutions - buildings of a simple rectangular shape without a height difference; facades without niches, belts and other elements that retain atmospheric precipitation; evacuation exits in the walls are parallel to the direction of the prevailing winds; double vestibules with 3 doors; internal - heated; coatings are flat, drainage is external unorganized.

constructive measures - it is necessary to preserve the soil in a frozen state. Ventilated undergrounds, cooling devices, surface and buried boxes, pipes, channels are used. The height of the underground under the condition of free transfer of snow under the building is at least 1 m.

The outer walls are insulated, the quality of the joints is high. Windows - double-glazed windows, the places of the vestibule of vents, transoms are sealed with elastic gaskets and tension devices.

Pneumatic structures are effective due to their lightness, compactness and speed of erection (temporary, production, storage facilities, garages, etc.).

* In the southern regions of Russia.

They are characterized by high air temperatures in summer, sharp temperature fluctuations during the day, winds, sand and dust storms.

Protective measures are planning, constructive and organizational in nature.

PLANNING: it is better to choose a higher place so that it blows, on the northern and southern slopes, the least exposed to solar radiation. The orientation of apartments, orientation sectors, through ventilation, more green spaces are taken into account, but not too dense, because. interfere with ventilation. Low buildings on the windward side, then high ones. Reservoirs, ponds, fountains, frequent watering. Pedestrian paths are protected by green spaces.

CONSTRUCTIONAL: foundations with shallow laying depth, walls with high heat resistance in air gaps ventilated by air. The outer surface of the walls is painted in cold light colors, reflecting solar radiation; inside too. In areas with a hot and dry climate, the area of side light openings is reduced and they are arranged from above. They are filled with special heat-shielding or light-diffusing glass, double-glazed windows, fiberglass. Coatings - insulated with ventilated air gaps, protective layer from mica chips, light colors of the roof.

"Organizational events"

Sun protection devices are effective means of combating overheating, they are permanent and temporary, according to the configuration - horizontal, inclined, combined (screens, visors, lodges, loggias, awnings, fast-growing climbing plants).

* In seismic regions (15% S of Russia)

Seismicity is estimated on a 12-point scale, in Russia max 8 points.

All areas of seismicity have large reserves of minerals and therefore the problems of construction there are very relevant.

Principles of design, earthquake-resistant buildings and structures:

reduction in the mass of structures;

selection of a structural system with optimal rigidity;

ensuring solidity, etc.;

use of high-strength and reliable materials, high quality performance of construction and installation works;

areas with calm reliefs are selected;

low-rise buildings are preferred;

the shape of the building in terms of developed more than at a height;

anti-seismic seams in the form of a paired row of columns in frame buildings or walls in frameless buildings.

In the walls there are floor-by-floor anti-seismic belts made of monolithic reinforced concrete, reinforcement in places of interfloor ceilings. In the panels of buildings, the seams are filled with elastic linings. Stairwells up to the 5th floor are ordinary, and above - a monolithic stiffening core. Reinforcement of a brick wall of reinforcement or the introduction of reinforced concrete sections with insulation.

*In undermined territories

These are the territories under which underground mining of coal or other minerals is being carried out or is planned to be carried out.

They are characterized by:

subsidence;

deflections;

slopes;

horizontal displacements and other deformations that cause significant damage or destruction of buildings or structures located on them.

Strength, stability, reliability in operation is ensured by special measures:

reduction of deformations of the bases by mining engineering measures - full or partial backfilling of the mined-out space with material delivered from outside, incomplete excavation of minerals, leaving safety locks of the required dimensions, etc.

planning - a small area of \u200b\u200bthe building, without ledges and outbuildings; long buildings are divided into compartments, which reduces the effort on the structure. Expansion joints in foundations; walls are the same as in seismic areas. High-quality connection of elements in frame buildings (welding of embedded parts, connection of reinforcement loops, embedment of seams, Ø of reinforcement used 4 - 6 mm); long floors are made with expansion joints every 6 m.

Natural and climatic conditions. The main natural and climatic factors are climate, landscape and engineering and geological conditions. Natural and climatic conditions have a significant impact on the architecture of residential buildings, on their spatial and functional organization, on the choice of building materials and structures, etc.

The temperature and humidity regime is taken into account when designing residential buildings, protecting them from sharp seasonal and daily changes in outdoor temperature, from hypothermia in the northern and overheating in the southern regions. In coastal areas, residential buildings are protected from humid air and in continental areas from dry air. The main means for the formation of a comfortable temperature and humidity regime are the shape and structure of the enclosing structures of the dwelling, (material and thickness of the outer wall of the building) and ventilation of residential premises, as well as the shape of the building itself - the compactness of its plan, the width of the building, the perimeter of the outer walls, etc. .

The material, design and thickness of the enclosing wall have great importance in cold climates. Ventilation is most important in hot, humid climates. In single-family houses, corner, through and vertical ventilation are effective.

When developing master plans for residential buildings and residential settlements, it is important to take into account the wind regime. Wind with a speed of 5 m/s and more adversely affects a person. Residential buildings are protected from the action of adverse winds, while at the same time arranging aeration, that is, organized and controlled natural air exchange in the built-up area and natural ventilation of residential premises.

Means of ensuring aeration are the orientation of residential buildings in relation to the prevailing winds in a given area, the shape and structure of its enclosing wall - the distribution and size of openings on the outer wall.

To create the sanitary and hygienic comfort necessary for a person, living quarters are insolated. Insolation - irradiation of residential premises and adjacent territories with direct sunlight; characterized by duration and measured in hours. For the northern regions, insolation of residential premises should be provided for 3 hours, for middle lane- 2.5 hours, for the southern regions - 2 hours. In conditions of reconstruction, insolation can be reduced by 0.5 hours.

Accounting for insolation is carried out when designing residential premises and placing a house on a site. To ensure normal sanitary and hygienic conditions in 2-3-room houses, at least one living room should be insolated, in 4-room houses or more - at least two living quarters.

Means of providing insolation are the orientation of residential buildings and their shape - the configuration of plans, gaps between buildings and their height.

The orientation of a dwelling is considered favorable if it provides its insolation. A favorable orientation for residential premises is provided by the southern and eastern sides of the horizon (from 40 to 200 °), as well as the northwestern (from 290 to 320 °). Accordingly, an unfavorable orientation is given by the north (320-40 °) for all climatic regions due to the lack of insolation and the south-west (200-290 °) for the southern regions due to overheating. They eliminate overheating with the help of sun protection: on the southern facade, the most effective is horizontal, on the eastern and western - vertical.

There are latitudinal, meridional and diagonal types of orientation of residential buildings. With a latitudinal orientation, residential buildings are located along the latitude and its premises are oriented to the south and north, with a meridional orientation, a residential building is oriented along the meridian, and its premises are oriented to the east and west, and in the case of a diagonal orientation, in the directions SW - NE and SE - NW. In areas with a cold and temperate climate, residential buildings are oriented meridional and diagonally in any direction, in areas with a warm and hot climate - latitudinally and diagonally in the direction SE - NW (Fig. 1).

Natural illumination of residential premises creates the necessary sanitary and hygienic comfort of living and depends on the level of outdoor illumination (brightness of the sky); the amount of reflected light; the size of the light openings; room depths. The means of providing the required natural illumination are the shape and size of the openings, the orientation of the residential building. They regulate the level of natural light, drawing up plans for the living quarters of the house and developing its facades.

The shaping of residential development, namely the choice of the type of residential building, building methods is closely related to the terrain. The need to take into account the terrain is especially relevant during construction in mountainous areas and foothills, as well as in connection with the development of the slopes of ravines, hills, coastal zones, etc. With an increase in the angle of inclination to 10-15 °, the terrain affects the layout of the first floor of a residential building , with a slope of more than 15-20 °, special types of residential buildings should be used - terraced houses.

Rice. 1. Sectors of unfavorable orientation of residential premises a - north of 58 ° N; b - in the range of 48-58 ° N; c - south of 48 ° N; d - in I and II climatic regions with the predominance of northern winds

The conditions of visual perception of a separate building or complex are determined by the peculiarity of the physiology of human vision, on the one hand, and the place of the site in the spatial structure of the surrounding buildings, on the other. It is known that the zone of clear perception in the horizontal plane is 42 °, and in the vertical - 27 V. Therefore, a person can perceive the designed object in a real situation’ not at all the way the architect would like. These features have long been taken into account by architects.

To take into account the conditions of visual perception means to give the external form of a residential building - a silhouette, large plastic - such qualities that express its belonging to a given place of settlement. The nature of perception changes depending on the type of movement of a person: moving on foot or by transport, a person will perceive the forms of a residential building in different ways. Different time of perception dictates different ways organization of the information potential of the house. In addition, they take into account the direction of human movement, i.e. the direction of perception of the composition, emphasizing the planning axes with the axes of visual perception, organizing the "framing" of perception, closing the perspectives with expressive frontal compositions. It is especially important to take into account the conditions of visual perception when designing a residential building in the conditions of existing buildings.

The conditions of visual perception are taken into account when deciding the master plan for the development of the site.

The ancient Eastern Mediterranean occupied the territory between the middle and lower reaches of the Euphrates and the Mediterranean Sea south of Asia Minor and north of Egypt. The ancient borders of this region did not coincide with the borders of the current Eastern Mediterranean states. So, Syria in ancient times occupied only the western regions of present-day Syria and Turkish lands south of Kleim, the territory of Phoenicia as a whole lay within the borders of modern Lebanon, and Palestine covered the territory not only of Israel, but also of the Palestinian Arabs and Jordan (Jordan).

The Eastern Mediterranean is a zone of striking natural contrasts. There were half-dead deserts and fertile lowlands, and mountains with snow-capped peaks, swamps and lakes, and evergreen forests. Of the raw materials in the region, only industrial timber was in abundance. Full-flowing rivers that would encourage the development of irrigation agriculture, and therefore would contribute to the formation of strong states with powerful centralized power, did not exist in the Eastern Mediterranean. But important caravan routes passed through its territory, which opened up wide opportunities for the development of intermediary trade. Floods did not threaten the population of the Eastern Mediterranean, yet nature showed its strong temper here too with the help of devastating earthquakes and their formidable satellites - tsunamis, which from time to time brought death and destruction and forced the local population from the 2nd millennium BC. e. engage in earthquake-resistant construction.

The climate of the Eastern Mediterranean generally contributed to human economic activity. The hot summer with its sandstorms continued throughout April-October, then autumn came with its thick fogs, followed by a three-month winter with piercing winds, irregular cold showers, sometimes even snow. To the steppe neighbors, the Eastern Mediterranean has always seemed a fabulously rich country that "flows" with milk and honey.

In each of the historical regions of the Eastern Mediterranean - the biblical "country of Canaan" - there were local climatic features that largely determined the specifics of the economic, socio-political and spiritual life of the Phoenicians, Syrians and Jews in antiquity.

Phenicia was a seaside country, which was surrounded by the low mountain range of Lebanon from the east, the sloping slopes of which towards the sea were covered by evergreen Mediterranean vegetation. The Phoenicians inhabited the mountain slopes almost to the very peaks.

The Arabist I. Yu. Krachkovsky described the Lebanese mountain landscape as follows: “The road goes up almost all the time; the higher - the more mountainous rivers, more water, and therefore greener, for which, in general, Lebanon is not too generous. But thanks to the high terrain here the greenery is not so much of the south, as of the middle strip.There are many silvery poplars, and, perhaps, that is why one village with its clean huts, through which we passed at moonlight, very much reminded me of Little Russia.

Moist sea winds brought plenty of precipitation to Phenicia, so that irrigation was not needed in it. The coastline of Phenicia abounded with convenient bays and natural harbors for navigation. The main raw material wealth of the country was the famous cedar forests, which provided solid building material, resin, wood glue, and aromatic oils.

Syria, unlike Phoenicia, was not a maritime country, although it had access to the sea. A small river Orontes (the real Al-Asi) flowed through its territory, which made its way between the mountains of Lebanon and Antilles to Ivanu. Turning steeply to the west in its lower reaches, this river flowed through now almost dry lakes and swamps and emptied into the Mediterranean Sea. Moist sea winds penetrated through its mouth into northern Syria, so the Syrian lands were well irrigated and survived well. Behind Antil Ivan, in the direction of the Syrian desert, lay two oases - a large one - Damascus and a small one - Palmyra. Ancient caravan routes led through them.

The territory of Palestine was delineated by the southern foothills of Lebanon and the northwestern borders of the Arabian Peninsula. A small river Jordan flowed through the country, which flowed from the southern spurs of Antilevanu and flowed into the Dead Sea - a shallow lake with water six times saltier than sea water (through this it completely lacks organic matter). The river divided Palestine into two geographical zones. To the east of it stretched unsuitable for agriculture steppe and mountainous terrain, and to the west - a territory that delighted the eye with fields, orchards, vineyards, meadows and pastures. In the north of Palestine, mountains with snow-capped peaks rose, on the southern outskirts, the Syrian-Arabian desert began.

The southern coast of the Dead Sea is framed by a range of hills, among which (due to weathering) there are salt pillars, similar in outline to a human figure. There is an opinion that it was they that served as the basis for the biblical legend about the transformation by God of the overly interesting woman of the righteous Lot into a pillar of salt.

Of the raw materials, Palestine had clay and building stone. Nature, thus, turned out to be stingy with industrial raw materials, but stimulated trading activity(ancient caravan routes ran through Palestine).

The Eastern Mediterranean, open to all winds, is figuratively called the passage yard of Western Asia, the crossroads of peoples. It is very difficult to understand the ethnogenesis of its population; one has to deal in this matter exclusively with scientific hypotheses.

Natural and climatic conditions are understood as the forces of nature that affect the life of the population and the economic activity necessary to obtain the final products of this activity. Natural and climatic conditions can facilitate or hinder the settlement and development of the territory of a particular region, affect the scale, ways and forms of use of natural resources. Any of the elements (“wind rose”, temperature, humidity, etc.) of natural and climatic conditions can be characterized by: - the strength and nature of the impact; - the territory of the impact; - the versatility, duration and seasonality of the impact; different groups population; - the degree of possibility and expediency of its improvement; - the degree of influence on the livelihoods of the population.

The territories of the regions according to the elements of natural and climatic conditions are divided into extreme, uncomfortable, hyper-comfortable, pre-comfortable, comfortable. Territories with an extremely unfavorable natural impact on human life are referred to as extreme. Territories with a very adverse impact on human life are considered uncomfortable. Hyper-comfortable territories are those that are suitable for the formation of a permanent population arriving from other regions. Precomfortable areas are areas that are favorable enough for the formation of a permanent population. Comfortable areas are optimal for human life. A significant part of the territory of Russia belongs to extreme and uncomfortable areas. However, the bulk of the population lives in regions with pre-comfortable and comfortable conditions.

Natural and climatic conditions can accelerate or slow down the pace of development of economic activity. L. V. Milov was one of the last to dwell on this problem. In his opinion, in central Russia, which formed the historical core of the Russian state (after it moved from Kyiv to North-Eastern Russia), with all the fluctuations in climate, the cycle of agricultural work was unusually short, taking only 125-130 working days.

East European Plain: the climate is sharply continental, severe. And the soil is unfavorable - only 3% of chernozem, mostly clay and other infertile soils. Solovyov said that Russian nature has become a stepmother for Russian people. Long winters, short summers, cold or hot steppe winds, a large temperature drop, an abundance of moisture in some areas and a lack of it in other areas, poverty of soils - all this has had big influence to the economic sociocultural development peoples inhabiting this area. Where's the goodness in that? First, the very poor quality of the soil. However, the quality of the soil is not the main thing. Most of us have suburban areas, we do not like to go there. However, the yield depends not so much on the quality of the soil, but on the quality of processing.

For high-quality processing, the Russian person did not have time. Because The agricultural year on average lasted 135-147 days a year. From the 12th to the 18th centuries in Europe there was a so-called small glacial period. The average monthly temperature was minus 37 degrees (in Moscow).

During the feudal era, the agricultural year was 140 days a year. Therefore, it was necessary to hurry, which led to a change, to the originality of the structure of the economy. They grew only the essentials. Therefore, cereal growing becomes the main one. Those. cultivated crops that are drought tolerant and do not require maintenance.

Gardening was not practiced. They planted only what would grow on its own: turnips, rutabagas, peas.

Cities have always been surrounded by gardens (dachas). The townspeople were gardeners in the summer - they themselves took care of food. This influenced the nature of the craft. In Russia, a gardener in summer and a craftsman in winter.

For at least four centuries, the Russian peasant was in a situation where poor soils required careful cultivation, and he simply did not have enough time for it, as well as for the preparation of fodder for livestock. Using primitive tools, the peasant could cultivate his arable land with only minimal intensity, and his life most often directly depended only on the fertility of the soil and the vagaries of the weather.

In reality, with a given budget of working time, the quality of his agriculture was such that he could not always return even seeds to the harvest. In practice, this meant for the peasant the inevitability of work without sleep and rest, day and night, using all the reserves of the family. A peasant in the west of Europe did not need such a strain of strength either in the Middle Ages or in modern times, because the season of work was much longer there. The break in field work in some countries was surprisingly short (December-January). Of course, this provided a much more favorable rhythm of work. And arable land could be processed much more carefully (4-6 times). This is the fundamental difference between Russia and the West, traceable for centuries.

Low productivity, the dependence of labor results on weather conditions, led to the extreme stability of communal institutions in Russia, which are a certain social guarantor of the survival of the bulk of the population. Land redistributions and equalizations, various kinds of peasant "helps" were preserved in Russia until 1917. Communal leveling traditions survived after the First World War, they existed in the 20s until collectivization.

For three months of the year he was a peasant, and the rest of the time he was an artisan. Hence the quality and character of the craft. The trade was multifarious. Shops appeared only from the end of the 18th century. Those. before that, merchants went, changed, carried. Therefore, each handicraft product was made for an abstract consumer. In Europe, if you make a bad, low-quality product, then you will disgrace your workshop, brand.

The natural and climatic factor also influenced the unprofitability of animal husbandry. Spring begins, there is nothing to sow, the peasant harnesses himself. Agriculture gave a low surplus product. That is, there was a low living standard.

This gave rise to a feature of the state structure. What makes the state live? Through taxes. If there is no surplus product, it means that it is difficult to take taxes, which means that there must be a strong state, therefore a despotic state existed in Russia.

The social structure is changing. There is no surplus product, therefore, society cannot support the intelligentsia. However, there are needs in health care, art, and science. And since there is no intelligentsia, then these functions are performed by religion.

Therefore, in Russia, until the surplus product began to grow, there was no intelligentsia, there was no secular literature, no music. Russian culture until the 18th century had a religious character.

The natural and climatic factor also influenced the social structure. The countries of the first echelon left primitiveness by the 11th century, the community was outdated, and an individual economy came. In Russia, the communal structure survived until the 20th century. Even Stolypin's reform could not change anything. In other words, there was a community organization in Russia. In these difficult conditions, the efforts of our reformers aimed at creating farms did not lead to anything.

Also, the natural and climatic factor influenced psychology - community psychology is taking shape in Russia. So in Russian history there is blat. It's from the time Kievan Rus. Everyone struggled with it. There is fuel for this phenomenon - community psychology. Griboyedov expressed this well in Woe from Wit.

Another consequence of community psychology is egalitarianism. She has always been. Leveling is a lever for the self-preservation of communities. The community breaks down if the neighbor gets rich.

Since the Russian people were dependent on nature and weather (it was possible to work on arable land from morning to evening, however, early drought or frost could ruin all work). Therefore, people believed in miracles. Belief in miracles also manifested itself in folklore. All Russian characters of fairy tales miraculously received life joys. This hope for a miracle is generally characteristic of the Russian character, hence the unique, untranslatable words into other languages: maybe, I suppose.

The natural and climatic factor largely determined the features of the national character of Russians. First of all, we are talking about the ability of a Russian person to extreme exertion of strength, concentration for a relatively long period of time of all his physical and spiritual potential. At the same time, the eternal shortage of time, the lack of correlation between the quality of agricultural work and the yield of grain for centuries, did not develop in him a pronounced habit of thoroughness, accuracy in work, etc.

The extensive nature of agriculture, its riskiness played a significant role in the development in the Russian people of ease to change places, the eternal craving for the "podraisky land", for white water, etc., to which Russia is not least obliged by its vast territory, and at the same time Time has multiplied in him a craving for traditionalism, the rooting of habits. On the other hand, the harsh working conditions, the strength of communal traditions, the inner feeling of the danger of pauperization for society gave ground for the development of a sense of kindness, collectivism, and readiness for help in a Russian person. It can be said that the Russian patriarchal, not in terms of economics, but in terms of its mentality, the peasantry did not accept capitalism.

The following geopolitical conditions are usually noted that influenced the specifics of Russian history: a vast, sparsely populated territory, a border unprotected by natural barriers, isolation (for almost the entire history) from the seas (and, accordingly, from maritime trade), a river network that favors the territorial unity of the historical core of Russia, intermediate between Europe and Asia position of Russian territories.

The weak population of the lands of the East European Plain and Siberia, which became the object of the application of the forces of the Russian people, had a variety of consequences for its history. Extensive land reserves provided favorable conditions for the outflow of the agricultural population from the historical center of Russia. This circumstance forced the state to strengthen control over the personality of the farmer (so as not to lose sources of income). The more in the course of historical development the needs of the state and society for a surplus product increased, the more rigid the control became, leading in the 17th century to the enslavement of a significant mass of the Russian peasantry.

On the other hand, due to the weak population of the country, the Russians in the process of colonization did not have to win a “place under the sun” for themselves in the fight against the indigenous peoples of Central Russia (Finno-Ugric peoples) and Siberia: there was enough land for everyone. "The Slavic tribes spread over vast expanses, along the banks of large rivers; when moving from south to north, they had to meet Finnish tribes, but there were no legends about hostile clashes between them: it can be easily assumed that the tribes did not really quarrel over the land, which there were so many and along which it was possible to settle so spaciously without offending each other.

Extremely complicated historical existence Russian people such a factor as the natural openness of the borders of Russian lands for foreign invasions from the West and East. Russian territories were not protected by natural barriers: neither the seas nor the mountain ranges protected them. Naturally, this circumstance was used by neighboring peoples and states: Catholic Poland, Sweden, Germany (the Livonian and Teutonic knightly orders in the Baltic states, Germany in World Wars 1 and 2) and even France (under Napoleon I), on the one hand, the nomads of the Great Steppe , with another. The constant threat of military incursions and the openness of the border lines required enormous efforts from the Russian and other peoples of Russia to ensure their security: significant material costs, human resources (and this with a small and rare population). Moreover, security interests demanded a concentration of popular efforts: as a result, the role of the state had to increase enormously. The location between Europe and Asia made Russia open to influence from both the West and the East. Until the 13th century, development proceeded similarly and parallel to that of Europe. However, the active invasion of the West with the aim of seizing land and planting Catholicism, which took place simultaneously with the Tatar-Mongol invasion, forced Russia to turn towards the East, which seemed to be a lesser evil.

Asian despotism as a form of state structure of the society of the emerging Moscow principality was due to external, military circumstances, as well as internal, natural-geographical and socio-political factors. Therefore, when choosing forms of government, such democratic options as the Novgorod Republic or a representative monarchy with Zemsky Sobors, were discarded in favor of autocracy.

In addition to the unfavorable, there were also geopolitical factors favorable for the historical development of Russia. The first of them is the specifics of the river network of the East European Plain, which the Greek historian Herodotus drew attention to: "Besides the many huge rivers, there is nothing more remarkable in this country."

In fact, Solovyov echoes him, the vast expanse of ancient Scythia corresponds to gigantic river systems, which almost intertwine with each other, thus forming a water network throughout the country, from which it was difficult for the population to free itself for a special life; as everywhere, so with us, the rivers served as guides for the first population: the tribes sat down on them, the first cities appeared on them. Since the largest of them flow to the east or southeast, this also determined the predominant distribution of the Russian state area in the indicated direction; rivers contributed a lot to the unity of the people and the state, and for all that, special river systems initially determined special systems of regions, principalities. Thus, the river network united the country both politically and economically.

Another favorable factor for the history of Russia is that a significant part of the "Great Silk Road" from China to Europe passed through its territory. This circumstance created an objective interest of many countries and peoples in maintaining political stability along this great highway of antiquity, i.e. in the existence of the Eurasian Empire: at first, the state of Genghis Khan became such an empire, then Russia.

2 Natural and climatic factors influencing the history of Russia

L. V. Milov was one of the last to dwell on this problem. In his opinion, in central Russia, which formed the historical core of the Russian state (after it moved from Kyiv to North-Eastern Russia), with all the fluctuations in climate, the cycle of agricultural work was unusually short, taking only 125-130 working days.

East European Plain: the climate is sharply continental, severe. And the soil is unfavorable - only 3% of chernozem, mostly clay and other infertile soils. Solovyov said that Russian nature has become a stepmother for Russian people. What is wrong here? First, the very poor quality of the soil. However, the quality of the soil is not the main thing. Most of us have suburban areas, we do not like to go there. However, the yield depends not so much on the quality of the soil, but on the quality of processing.

For high-quality processing, the Russian person did not have time. Because The agricultural year on average lasted 135-147 days a year. From the 12th to the 18th centuries, Europe experienced the so-called Little Ice Age. The average monthly temperature was minus 37 degrees (in Moscow).

Gardening was not practiced. They planted only what would grow on its own: turnips, rutabagas, peas.

In Europe, if you make a bad, low-quality product, then you will disgrace your workshop, brand.

Also, the natural and climatic factor influenced psychology - community psychology is taking shape in Russia. So in Russian history there is blat. This is from the time of Kievan Rus. Everyone struggled with it. There is fuel for this phenomenon - community psychology. Griboyedov expressed this well in Woe from Wit.

Another consequence of community psychology is egalitarianism. She has always been. Leveling is a lever for the self-preservation of communities. The community breaks down if the neighbor gets rich.

The historical existence of the Russian people was extremely complicated by such a factor as the natural openness of the borders of Russian lands to foreign invasions from the West and East. Russian territories were not protected by natural barriers: neither the seas nor the mountain ranges protected them. Naturally, this circumstance was used by neighboring peoples and states: Catholic Poland, Sweden, Germany (the Livonian and Teutonic knightly orders in the Baltic states, Germany in World Wars 1 and 2) and even France (under Napoleon I), on the one hand, the nomads of the Great Steppe , with another.

The constant threat of military incursions and the openness of the border lines required enormous efforts from the Russian and other peoples of Russia to ensure their security: significant material costs, human resources (and this with a small and rare population). Moreover, security interests demanded a concentration of popular efforts: as a result, the role of the state had to increase enormously. The location between Europe and Asia made Russia open to influence from both the West and the East. Until the 13th century, development proceeded similarly and parallel to that of Europe. However, the active invasion of the West with the aim of seizing land and planting Catholicism, which took place simultaneously with the Tatar-Mongol invasion, forced Russia to turn towards the East, which seemed to be a lesser evil.

In addition to the unfavorable, there were also geopolitical factors favorable for the historical development of Russia. The first of them is the specificity of the river network of the East European Plain, which the Greek historian Herodotus drew attention to: "Besides the many huge rivers, there is nothing more remarkable in this country."

In fact, Solovyov echoes him, the vast expanse of ancient Scythia corresponds to gigantic river systems, which almost intertwine with each other, thus forming a water network throughout the country, from which it was difficult for the population to free itself for a special life; as everywhere, so with us, the rivers served as guides for the first population: the tribes sat down on them, the first cities appeared on them. Since the largest of them flow to the east or southeast, this also determined the predominant distribution of the Russian state region in the indicated direction; rivers contributed a lot to the unity of the people and the state, and for all that, special river systems initially determined special systems of regions, principalities. Thus, the river network united the country both politically and economically.

Conclusion

Russia is the owner of a unique geopolitical space that connects it with all world civilizations, geostrategic regions, major powers of the world. Due to these circumstances, Russia is forever embedded in the world political process and cannot be excluded from it.

At the same time, for more than three centuries the country has not been able to develop this space, to populate it more evenly, to reduce the gap in the level of development between the center of Russia and its Siberian territories, and to create civilized living conditions there.

The vast expanses of Russia predetermined the predominantly extensive nature of the economy, the orientation towards self-sufficiency and the priority development of heavy industry, and weak participation in the international division of labor.

The problems of ensuring the country's security, public order over a vast area determined such features of Russian statehood as strong centralized power, the presence of a powerful military force, the hypertrophy of the country's first personality and the principle of one-man command, and the weakness of democratic institutions.

The great dependence of the economic results of the economy and the well-being of the population on natural and climatic conditions predetermined the low productivity of peasant labor, the poverty of the bulk of the population, and the poverty of the state. The feudal system, generated by these circumstances, even more inhibited the interest of the peasants in increasing the efficiency of their economy, fettered their initiative and enterprise. In conditions of poverty, frequent shortages and famine in Russia, a traditionally large public sector of the economy has been formed, and a significant regulatory role of the state in the economic sphere has been outlined. On the other hand, the hardships of a harsh life were easier to overcome by a communal way of life.

The geopolitical position of Russia on two continents and the influence of the two civilized worlds on it led to the constant struggle of two currents in the political elite of 6 supporters of rapprochement with the West and adherents of national identity. taken from the beginning of the 18th century. attempts to modernize the country according to the European model, as a rule, led to serious political and social crises, deepening the split of society, deformation of transformations, rejection of European values by the majority of the population.

The most important historical lesson for politicians and citizens of the country: the modern reformation of Russia is impossible without taking into account the geopolitical situation Russian state, its features and traditions. World experience must be adapted to national conditions. Understanding the historical features of the geopolitical development of Russia is the most important source of the formation of the national consciousness of the country's population. “It is not enough to be born Russian. They need to be, they need to be.” (I. Severyanin).

STATE INSTITUTE OF ELECTRONICS AND MATHEMATICS (Technical University) Department of History and Political Science Guidelines for students on the preparation of practical and test papers on the course "Russia in World History" Moscow 1998. Compiled by: Professor Popova T.G., Oganesyan M.N. Practical work. Examination. / Guidelines for preparing for practical and ...

They are no longer retailers, but wholesalers who have acquired the right to operate throughout Russia. Question 7. Soviets of workers', soldiers', sailors' and peasants' deputies: their role and significance in the history of the state and law of Russia (modern assessment). Justify your answer, give examples. by 1917 Lenin put forward new idea- the idea of the dictatorship of the proletariat in the form of a republic of Soviets. ...

Russia from the history of Western societies. What are these conditions? In domestic and foreign historiography, four factors are usually distinguished that determined the features (backwardness, delay, originality, originality) of Russian history: 1) natural and climatic; 2) geopolitical; 3) confessional (religious); 4) social organization. Natural and climatic factor. From century to century, our ...

Climate of Russia

A great contribution to the study of the Russian climate was made by the founders of modern climatology A.I. Voeikov, A.A. Kaminsky, P.I. Brounov, B.P. Alisov, S.P. Khromov, M.I. Budyko and many other domestic climatologists.

Climate shaping factors

The climate of Russia, like any region, is formed under the influence of a number of climate-forming factors and processes. Their analysis reveals the genesis of the climate, helps to explain the geographical distribution of its elements, and makes it possible to understand the climatic features of individual regions of the country.

The main climate-forming processes are radiation and circulation. Features of their manifestation, the interaction of these processes depend on geographical location country, relief features and the influence of the properties of the underlying surface. Therefore, both the geographical location and the underlying surface are also among the factors of climate formation.

a:2:(s:4:"TEXT";s:96896:"

Influence of geographical location. The latitudinal position of the country determines the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface and its intra-annual distribution. Russia is located between 77 and 41°N; its main area is located between 50 and 70 ° N. latitude. This is the reason for the position of Russia mainly in the temperate and subarctic zones, which predetermines sharp changes in the amount of solar radiation during the seasons of the year. The large extent of the territory from north to south determines the significant differences in the annual total radiation between its northern and southern regions. In the Arctic archipelagos of Franz Josef Land and Severnaya Zemlya, the annual total radiation is about 60 kcal/cm2 (2500 mJ/m2), and in the extreme south it is about 120 kcal/cm2 (5000 mJ/m2).

Of great importance is the position of the country in relation to the oceans, since the distribution of cloudiness depends on it, which affects the ratio of direct and diffuse radiation and through it the amount of total radiation, as well as the supply of more humid sea air. Russia, as you know, is washed by the seas, mainly in the north and east, which, with the western transfer of air masses prevailing in these latitudes, limits the influence of the seas within a relatively narrow coastal strip. However, a sharp increase in cloudiness in the Far East in summer reduces solar radiation in July in the Sikhote-Alin region to 550 mJ/m2, which is equal to the total radiation in the north of the Kola Peninsula, Yamal, and Taimyr.

The decisive influence on the development of circulation processes is exerted by the position of the territory in relation to baric centers, or, as they are otherwise called, centers of action of the atmosphere. The climate of Russia is influenced by the Azores and Arctic highs, as well as the Icelandic and Aleutian lows. In winter, the Asian High is formed within Russia and neighboring regions of Mongolia. The prevailing winds and, consequently, the air masses depend on the position in relation to these baric centers. The influence of certain baric centers on the climate of Russia varies with the seasons of the year.

Relief has a significant influence on the formation of the Russian climate. The location of the mountains along the eastern and, partially, along the southern outskirts of the country, its openness to the north and northwest ensure the influence of the North Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean on most of the territory of Russia, limit the influence of the Pacific Ocean and Central Asia. At the same time, the influence of Central Asia is more pronounced than the influence of the Black Sea or the Near Asian highlands. The height of the mountains and their location in relation to the prevailing air currents determine the varying degree of their influence on the climate of neighboring territories (the Caucasus and the Urals). In the mountains, a special, mountainous, climate is formed, which changes with height. Mountains exacerbate cyclones. Differences are observed in the climate of the leeward and windward slopes, mountain ranges and intermountain basins. On the plains, there are differences in the climate of uplands and lowlands, river valleys and interfluves, although they are much less significant than in the mountains.

Not only the relief, but also other features of the underlying surface affect the climatic features of a particular territory. The presence of snow cover determines the change in the ratio of reflected and absorbed radiation due to the high albedo of snow, especially freshly fallen snow (up to 80-95%). Tundra, forest, dry steppe and meadow also have different reflectivity; it is the lowest in the coniferous forest (10-15%). Dark, bare soils absorb heat three times more than dry, light-colored soils. sandy soils. Differences in the albedo of the underlying surface are one of the reasons for differences in the radiation balance of territories receiving the same total radiation. Evaporation of moisture from the soil surface, transpiration of plants also vary from place to place. In this case, the amount of heat spent on evaporation changes, therefore, the temperature of the soil surface and the surface air layer changes.

As we can see, the differences in the nature of the underlying surface are reflected in the climate of the territories.

radiation conditions. Solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface is the main energy base for climate formation. It determines the main influx of heat to the earth's surface. The farther from the equator, the smaller the angle of incidence of the sun's rays, the lower the intensity of solar radiation. Due to the large cloudiness in the western regions of the Arctic Basin, which delays direct solar radiation, the lowest annual total radiation is typical for the polar islands of this part of the Arctic and the Varanger Fjord region on the Kola Peninsula (about 2500 mJ/m2). To the south, the total radiation increases, reaching a maximum on the Taman Peninsula and in the area of Lake Khanka in the Far East (over 5000 mJ/m2). Thus, the annual total radiation doubles from the northern borders to the southern ones.

The total radiation is the incoming part of the radiation balance: R = Q (1 - a) - J. The outgoing part is reflected radiation (Q a) and effective radiation (J). The reflected radiation depends on the albedo of the underlying surface, and therefore varies from zone to zone and seasons. The effective radiation increases with decreasing cloudiness, hence from the coasts of the seas inland. In addition, the effective radiation depends on the air temperature and the temperature of the active surface. In general, the effective radiation increases from north to south.

The radiation balance in the northernmost islands is negative; in the mainland, it varies from 400 mJ/m2 in the extreme north of Taimyr to 2000 mJ/m2 in the extreme south of the Far East, in the lower reaches of the Volga and Eastern Ciscaucasia. The radiation balance reaches its maximum value (2100 mJ/m2) in the Western Ciscaucasia. The radiation balance determines the amount of heat that is spent on the diverse processes occurring in nature. Consequently, near the northern continental outskirts of Russia, natural processes, and above all, climate formation, consume five times less heat than near its southern outskirts.

circulation processes. On the territory of Russia, circulation processes are no less important in providing thermal resources than radiation processes.

Due to various physical properties land and ocean, there is an unequal heating and cooling of the air in contact with them. As a result, there are movements of air masses of various origins - atmospheric circulation. The circulation proceeds under the influence of centers of high and low pressure. Their position and degree of expression change according to the seasons of the year, in connection with which the prevailing winds, which bring certain air masses to the territory of Russia, also change significantly. However, throughout most of the country, westerly winds prevail throughout the year, bringing Atlantic air masses, with which the main precipitation is associated.

Air masses and their frequency. The regular repetition of air masses, with the characteristics of which the nature of the weather is associated, determines the main features of the climate of the territory. Three types of air masses are characteristic of Russia: arctic air (AB), air of temperate latitudes (TSL) and tropical air (ТВ). Air masses of temperate latitudes prevail throughout most of the country's territory throughout the year, represented by two sharply differing subtypes - continental (CLW) and maritime (MW). Continental air is formed directly over the territory of Russia and neighboring regions of the mainland. It is characterized by dryness throughout the year, low temperatures in winter and fairly high summers. Sea air of temperate latitudes enters Russia from the North Atlantic (Atlantic), and to the eastern regions from the North Pacific Ocean. Compared to continental air, it is humid, cooler in summer and warmer in winter. Moving through the territory of Russia, the sea air is quite quickly transformed, acquiring the features of a continental one.

Arctic air is formed over the icy expanses of the Arctic, so it is cold, has low absolute humidity and high transparency. Under the influence of the Arctic air is the whole northern half Russia; its role is especially significant in Central and North-Eastern Siberia. In the transitional seasons, the Arctic air, penetrating into the middle and southern latitudes, causes late spring and early autumn frosts. In summer, droughts and dry winds are associated with the breakthrough of arctic air into the southern regions of the East European and West Siberian plains, since as you move south it transforms into air of temperate latitudes: its temperature rises, and humidity drops more and more.

The air that forms over most of the Arctic is close to continental in its low humidity. Only over the Barents Sea, into which the warm waters of the North Atlantic Current penetrate, is the Arctic air not so cold and more humid. Sea arctic air is formed here.

Tropical air influences the climatic features of the southern regions of Russia. Local continental tropical air is formed over the plains of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, over the Caspian lowland and the eastern regions of the Ciscaucasia and Transcaucasia as a result of the transformation of the incoming air from temperate latitudes. Tropical air is characterized by high temperatures, low humidity and low transparency.

Tropical marine air (mTV) sometimes penetrates into the southern regions of the Far East from the central regions of the Pacific Ocean, and into the western regions of the Caucasus from the Mediterranean (Mediterranean air). It is characterized by high humidity and relatively high temperatures compared to MWSS.

atmospheric fronts. At the contact of qualitatively different air masses, atmospheric fronts arise. Since three types of air masses are distributed over the territory of Russia, two atmospheric fronts arise: the Arctic and the Polar. Above the northern regions of Russia, at the contact of arctic air and air of temperate latitudes, an arctic front is formed, migrating within the arctic and subarctic belts. The polar front separates the air masses of temperate latitudes and tropical air and is located mainly to the south of the borders of Russia.

A series of cyclones and anticyclones continuously pass over the territory of Russia, contributing to weather changes, but in some areas anticyclonal weather prevails, especially in winter (Central Siberia, Northeast, Baikal and Transbaikalia), or cyclonic (Kuril Islands, southeast of Kamchatka, Kaliningrad region and etc.).

At present, artificial satellites provide data on the meteorological elements of the Earth's atmosphere and photographs of the processes that create weather on the planet. The images show large cloudless bands and spots, atmospheric fronts and various types of clouds. Remote meteorological data is used to compile synoptic maps and weather forecast maps.

Climatic features of the cold period

In winter, the total solar radiation reaches its highest values in the south of the Far East, in southern Transbaikalia and Ciscaucasia. In January, the extreme south of Primorye receives more than 200 mJ/m2, the rest of the listed areas - more than 150 mJ/km2. To the north, the total radiation rapidly decreases due to the lower position of the Sun and the shortening of the day. To 60° N it is already reduced by 3-4 times. To the north of the Arctic Circle, the polar night is established, the duration of which is at 70 ° N. latitude. is 53 days. The radiation balance in winter throughout the country is negative.

Under these conditions, there is a strong cooling of the surface and the formation of the Asian maximum with a center over Northern Mongolia, southeast Altai, Tuva, and the south of the Baikal region. The pressure at the center of the anticyclone exceeds 1040 hPa (mbar). Two spurs depart from the Asian High: to the northeast, where the secondary Oymyakon Center is formed with a pressure of over 1030 hPa, and to the west, to the connection with the Azores High, the Voeikov Axis. It stretches through the Kazakh uplands to Uralsk - Saratov - Kharkov - Chisinau and further up to the southern coast of France. In the western regions of Russia, within the Voeikov axis, the pressure drops to 1021 hPa, but remains higher than in the territories located north and south of the axis.

The Voeikov axis plays an important role in climate division. To the south of it (in Russia it is the south of the East European Plain and Ciscaucasia) east and northeast winds blow, carrying dry and cold continental air of temperate latitudes from the Asian high. To the north of the Voeikov axis, southwestern and western winds blow. The role of western transport in the northern part of the East European Plain and in the northwest of Western Siberia is enhanced due to the Icelandic Low, the trough of which reaches the Kara Sea (in the Varanger Fjord area, the pressure is 1007.5 hPa). With the western transport, relatively warm and humid Atlantic air often enters these areas.

The rest of Siberia is dominated by winds with a southerly component, which carry continental air from the Asian High.

Over the territory of the North-East, in the conditions of a hollow relief and minimal solar radiation in winter, continental arctic air is formed, which is very cold and dry. From the northeastern spur of high pressure, it rushes towards the Arctic and Pacific Oceans.

The Aleutian Low forms near the eastern shores of Kamchatka in winter. On the Commander Islands, in the southeastern part of Kamchatka, in the northern part of the Kuril island arc, the pressure is below 1003 hPa, and on a significant part of the coast of Kamchatka, the pressure is below 1006 hPa. Here, on the eastern outskirts of Russia, the area of low pressure is located in close proximity to the northeastern spur, so a high pressure gradient is formed (especially near the northern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk); cold continental air of temperate latitudes (in the south) and arctic (in the north) is carried out to the waters of the seas. The prevailing winds are north and northwest rhumbs.

The Arctic front is established in winter over the waters of the Barents and Kara seas, and in the Far East - over the Sea of Okhotsk. The polar front at this time passes south of the territory of Russia. Only on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus is the influence of cyclones of the Mediterranean branch of the polar front, the paths of which shift from Western Asia to the Black Sea due to lower pressure over its expanses. The distribution of precipitation is associated with frontal zones.

The distribution of not only moisture, but also heat on the territory of Russia during the cold period is largely associated with circulation processes, as clearly evidenced by the course of the January isotherms.

The -4°C isotherm passes meridionally through the Kaliningrad region. Near the western borders of the compact territory of Russia there is an isotherm of -8°С. In the south, it deviates to the Tsimlyansk reservoir and further to Astrakhan. The farther to the east, the lower the January temperatures. Isotherms -32...-36°C form closed contours over Central Siberia and the North-East. In the basins of the North-East and the eastern part of Central Siberia, the average January temperatures drop to -40..-48°C. Pole of cold northern hemisphere is Oymyakon, where the absolute minimum temperature of Russia is recorded, equal to -71 ° С.

The increase in the severity of winter to the east is associated with a decrease in the frequency of occurrence of Atlantic air masses and an increase in their transformation when moving over chilled land. Where warmer air from the Atlantic (western regions of the country) penetrates more often, winter is less severe.

In the south of the East European Plain and in Ciscaucasia, the isotherms are located sublatitudinally, rising from -10°С to -2...-3°С. This is where the influence of the radiation factor comes into play. Winters are milder than in the rest of the territory on the northwestern coast of the Kola Peninsula, where the average January temperature is -8°С and slightly higher. This is due to the inflow of air warmed over the warm North Cape current.

In the Far East, the course of isotherms follows the contours of the coastline, forming a clearly defined concentration of isotherms along the coastline. The warming effect here affects a narrow coastal strip due to the prevailing removal of air from the mainland. An isotherm of -4°С stretches along the Kuril ridge. Slightly higher than the temperature on the Commander Islands Along the eastern coast of Kamchatka, an isotherm of -8°C stretches. And even in coastal strip Primorye January temperatures are -10...-12°C. As you can see, in Vladivostok, the average January temperature is lower than in Murmansk, which lies beyond the Arctic Circle, 25 ° to the north.

The greatest amount of precipitation falls in the southeastern part of Kamchatka and the Kuriles. They are brought by cyclones not only of the Okhotsk, but also mainly of the Mongolian and Pacific branches of the polar front, rushing to the Aleutian Low. The Pacific sea air, drawn into the front of these cyclones, carries the bulk of the precipitation. But Atlantic air masses bring precipitation to most of the territory of Russia in winter, so the bulk of the precipitation falls in the western regions of the country. To the east and northeast, the amount of precipitation decreases. A lot of precipitation falls on the southwestern slopes of the Greater Caucasus. They are brought by Mediterranean cyclones.

Winter precipitation falls in Russia mainly in solid form, and snow cover is established almost everywhere, the height of which and the duration of occurrence fluctuate over a very wide range.

The shortest duration of snow cover is typical for the coastal regions of Western and Eastern Ciscaucasia (less than 40 days). In the south of the European part (up to the latitude of Volgograd), snow lies less than 80 days a year, and in the extreme south of Primorye - less than 100 days. To the north and northeast, the duration of snow cover increases to 240-260 days, reaching a maximum in Taimyr (over 260 days a year). Only on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus does not form a stable snow cover, but during the winter there can be 10-20 days with snow.

Less than 10 cm snow thickness in the deserts of the Caspian Sea, in the coastal regions of the Eastern and Western Ciscaucasia. In the rest of the territory of the Ciscaucasia, on the East European Plain south of Volgograd, in Transbaikalia and the Kaliningrad region, the snow depth is only 20 cm. In most of the territory, it varies from 40-50 to 70 cm. plains and in the Yenisei part of Western and Central Siberia, the height of the snow cover increases to 80-90 cm, and in the most snowy areas of the southeast of Kamchatka and the Kuriles - up to 2-3 m.

Thus, the presence of a sufficiently thick snow cover and its prolonged occurrence is typical for most of the country's territory, which is due to its position in temperate and high latitudes. With the northern position of Russia, the severity of the winter period and the height of the snow cover are of great importance for agriculture.

Climatic features of the warm period

With the onset of a warm period, the role of the radiation factor in climate formation sharply increases. It determines the temperature regime in almost the entire territory of the country.

Total radiation reaches its highest values in summer in the deserts of the Caspian Sea and on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus - in July 700 mJ/m2. To the north, the amount of solar radiation decreases little, due to the increase in the length of the day, therefore, in the north of Taimyr, it is 550 mJ / m2 in July, i.e. 80% of the radiation coming in the south of the country.

In summer, the radiation balance and average monthly temperatures are positive throughout the country. The average temperature in July on the northernmost islands of Franz Josef Land and Severnaya Zemlya is close to zero, on the Taimyr coast - a little more than + 2 ° С, in other coastal regions of Siberia + 4 ... + 6 ° С, and on the shores of the Barents Sea + 8...+ 9°С. When moving to the south, the temperature quickly rises to +12...+13°С. To the south, the rise in temperature is more gradual. The average July temperature reaches its maximum value of +25°C in the deserts of the Caspian Sea and Eastern Fore-Caucasus.

In summer, the land warms up, the pressure over it decreases. Over Transbaikalia, the south of Yakutia and the middle Amur region, the pressure is below 1006 hPa, and over the south of Dauria even 1003 hPa. Toward the oceans, the pressure rises, reaching 1012 hPa over the northern waters of the East Siberian and Chukchi Seas, over the Barents Sea and the western coast of Novaya Zemlya. Air masses rush deep into the mainland. Arctic air is cold and dry, especially in the eastern regions of the Arctic. Moving south, it quickly warms up and moves away from the state of saturation.

The Hawaiian (North Pacific) maximum moves northward in summer, approaching the Far Eastern borders of Russia, resulting in the summer monsoon. Pacific sea air of temperate latitudes, and sometimes tropical, enters the mainland. In connection with the movement of the Azores to the north, its spur penetrates the East European Plain. To the north and east of it, the pressure decreases. In summer, the western transport intensifies. Sea air from temperate latitudes enters Russia from the Atlantic.

All air masses that come to the territory of our country in summer are transformed into continental air of temperate latitudes. Over the northern seas, the Barents and Kara, and east of Taimyr, an Arctic front appears over the coastal regions of Siberia. The Mongolian branch of the polar front passes over the mountains of Southern Siberia, and an intramass front arises over the central regions of the East European Plain and Primorye, between the weakly transformed sea and continental air of temperate latitudes.

The most pronounced cyclonic activity is expressed in the East European Plain and in Primorye, where differences in properties between moisture-saturated maritime air of temperate latitudes (and sometimes tropical) and continental dry air are especially great. Increased summer cyclonic activity on the Arctic front causes prolonged drizzle in northern Russia.

In summer, almost the entire territory of the country receives a maximum of precipitation. In the tundra and taiga, it occurs in the second half of summer, and in the steppe - at the end of spring - the beginning of summer. Since in most of the territory of Russia summer precipitation is associated with the influx of Atlantic air, their maximum falls on the western regions of the country. Over 500 mm of precipitation falls during the warm period in the coastal regions of the Kaliningrad region, over 400 mm - in a strip stretching from the western border of Russia to the Northern Urals. To the east, the amount of precipitation during the warm period decreases, amounting to less than 200 mm in Central Yakutia. It also decreases to the north, especially to the northeast due to an increase in the frequency of arctic air. In the Caspian region, about 150 mm of precipitation falls in summer as a result of increased transformation of the Atlantic air under conditions of high temperatures.

The amplitude of average monthly temperatures in January and July reaches its highest values in the temperate zone, increasing with distance from the Atlantic Ocean. In Kaliningrad, it is 21°C, in the Smolensk-Pskov region 26-27°C, in the Urals it increases to 34-35°C, in Western Siberia it reaches 37-38°C, in the western part of the Central Siberian Plateau 42-44°C, in Central Yakutia and the basins of the North-East 55-60°С. The increase in the amplitude of temperatures and, accordingly, the degree of climate continentality from west to east is mainly due to the increase in the severity of winter. In the Far East, the temperature amplitude decreases to 44-46°C in the Amur region, 30-32°C on the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk and 20°C in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. Here, the influence of the Pacific Ocean already affects both winter temperatures (moderating) and summer (cooling), so a sharp change in amplitude occurs at a short distance.

To the north, in the subarctic and arctic belts, the decrease in temperature amplitude is mainly associated with a decrease in summer temperatures.

The annual amount of precipitation in the mountains and on the plains is significantly different. On the plains, the most precipitation falls in the band from 56 to 65 ° N.L. Within its limits, the annual precipitation decreases from west to east from 900-750 mm in the western part of the East European Plain to 650-500 mm in Western Siberia and to 300 mm or less in Central Yakutia. The increase in precipitation in the Yenisei part of Central Siberia to 800-1000 mm in the highest parts of the Putorana, Siverm and Tunguska plateaus is due to the influence of the orographic barrier.

In the Far East, the annual amount of precipitation increases to 1000-1200 mm in Sikhote-Alin, Sakhalin and Kamchatka. In the southeastern part of Kamchatka, the amount of precipitation reaches 2500 mm. The increase in precipitation here is due to the influence of the Pacific Ocean and mountainous terrain.

To the north and northeast, as well as south of this strip, the amount of precipitation decreases. In the deserts of the Caspian region, less than 300 mm of precipitation falls, and in the tundra of the Northeast, less than 250 mm. Thus, the least amount of precipitation in Russia falls in the tundras of the Northeast, which is associated with the predominance here throughout the year of cold and, as a result, dry continental Arctic air.

The increase in precipitation is typical for all mountainous regions: up to 1000 mm in the Urals, up to 1200 mm in Khamar-Daban, Sayans, Kuznetsk Alatau, up to 2000 mm in the highlands of Altai. The maximum annual precipitation in Russia - up to 3700 mm - falls on the windward southwestern slopes of the Greater Caucasus.

The mountains are characterized by a very uneven distribution of precipitation. Their maximum falls on the windward slopes, the lee slopes and highlands are poorer in precipitation, and the intermountain basins are often very dry, especially in the mountains of Southern Siberia and the Northeast.

The annual amount of precipitation, however, does not give a complete picture of the moisture content of the territory, because part of it is lost to the surface as a result of evaporation. Heat and moisture are closely interrelated in nature, since heat is spent on the evaporation of moisture. The higher the temperature of the air and the underlying surface, the more moisture can evaporate. Possible evaporation is characterized by volatility. It, like precipitation, is measured in millimeters of the water layer and increases from the northern borders of Russia to the south. In the tundras of Siberia, evaporation is less than 125 mm, and in the semi-deserts of the Caspian Sea it exceeds 1000 mm. The actual evaporation cannot be more than the annual amount of precipitation, therefore, in the semi-deserts and deserts of the Caspian Sea, it does not exceed 300-350 mm, although the evaporation here is 3 times higher. To the north, evaporation increases up to the southern taiga, reaching a maximum in the west of the East European Plain in the zone of mixed and broad-leaved forests (500-550 mm). To the north, evaporation again decreases, but here it is no longer limited by the amount of precipitation, but by the magnitude of evaporation.

Weekly tour, one-day hiking trips and excursions combined with comfort (trekking) in the mountain resort of Khadzhokh (Adygea, Krasnodar Territory). Tourists live at the camp site and visit numerous natural monuments. Rufabgo Waterfalls, Lago-Naki Plateau, Meshoko Gorge, Big Azish Cave, Belaya River Canyon, Guam Gorge.