Military counter-reform of Alexander 3. Alexander III and counter-reforms

The theme of "Counter-reforms of Alexander 3" is key to understanding why three subsequent revolutions took place in Russia, there was a murder royal family and much more in the first quarter of the 20th century. And although Alexander the Third was the penultimate ruler of the Romanov dynasty (except for Mikhail Romanov), the accents made during his reign were continued by his son Nicholas II.

Reasons for counter-reforms

The reasons for such a policy should be sought, in my opinion, in the Manifesto "On the Inviolability of the Autocracy" of April 29, 1881. At the very beginning we find these lines: “It was pleasing to God, in His inscrutable destinies, to end the glorious Reign of Our Beloved Parent with a martyr’s death, and to entrust Us with the Sacred Duty of Autocratic Rule”.

Thus, we see that the first, and, it seems, the main reason for the policy of counter-reforms was rooted in the author of the Manifesto: he sincerely believed that God punished his father, Alexander II, for his reforms, and now he placed his son on the throne, placing on him "sacred duty". Let me remind you that at that time the conservative ideology in Russia was represented by the Theory of Official Nationality, and the words of the document directly appeal to it.

The second reason for counter-reforms follows from the first: ruling circles in Russia were against rapid development, rapid changes. And they have already begun: the stratification of the peasantry, caused by the increase in property inequality in the countryside, the growth of the proletariat - the working class. The old government could not keep track of all this, because it thought in terms of old archetypes: how can society be protected from its development?

Characteristics of counter-reforms

Printing and education

• 1882 Tightening censorship. Closing of liberal newspapers and magazines (“Domestic Notes”, “Delo”…)
• 1884 Reactionary university charter. Cancellation of university self-government.
• 1887 Circular "On the cook's children" (prohibition of admission to the gymnasium of children of the lower classes).

These actions were taken against, one of which again granted university self-government to the country.

Local government

• The institute of zemstvo chiefs (from the nobility) was introduced to strengthen control over the zemstvos
• The rights and powers of zemstvos are limited.
• Zemstvos increased the number of deputies from the nobility at the expense of the number of deputies from other estates

These actions were implemented in order to downplay the role of local self-government, to turn zemstvos into a purely executive and administrative body of government. The latter did not trust his people. How will he manage himself?

Judicial counter-reform

• An emergency law was adopted to combat the revolutionary movement (1881). In accordance with it, when revolutionary unrest, the governors received the right to introduce a state of emergency in the provinces, which unleashed their hands against the revolutionaries, or their accomplices.
• The openness of legal proceedings in political cases was limited (1887).
• The magistrates' courts were liquidated (1889), which could deal with petty court cases.

These actions were aimed at limiting the capabilities of the courts. Many people know that the court has become more objective, the jury was introduced, which could go far behind the defense. No wonder the second half of the 19th century was the heyday of the legal profession, which, for example, showed .

Peasant question

Although Alexander the Third could not reverse the peasant reform, contrary to our expectations, something useful for the peasants was done. Thus, in 1881, the temporarily obligated position of the peasantry was abolished. Now all the peasant communities were transferred to the purchase of land from the landowner, simply - to the purchase. In the same year, redemption payments decreased by one ruble.

In 1882, the Peasants' Bank was established for settlements on the peasant issue and redemption payments. And in the period from 1882 to 1887, the poll tax was abolished.

But not everything was so rosy. So in 1893 the state limited the exit of peasants from the community. Alexander the Third saw in the peasant community a guarantee of the preservation of both autocracy and stability in Russia. Moreover, by doing so, the state reduced the flow of peasants to the city and their replenishment of the impoverished proletariat.

Consequences of counter-reforms

The policy of counter-reforms did not contribute to the development of those directions that were laid down in the previous reign. The life of the peasants was both miserable and remained so. The following example can be given to characterize life.

Somehow L.N. Tolstoy, traveling around Russia, saw a peasant who was carrying a cartload of potato tops. "Where are you taking?" - the Great Russian writer asked the peasant. "Yes, here - from the master." "For what?" Tolstoy asked. “For this tops, which we will now eat, we will have to sow, grow and reap the master’s field next year,” the poor fellow answered (Told according to the book by S.G. Kara-Murza “ Civil War in Russia").

The more terrible is the meaning of the words of Nicholas II, that all moods for change are groundless. The more definite is the understanding of the causes of the three revolutions in Russia in the first quarter of the 20th century.

Post Scriptum: Of course, in this short article we could not cover many important aspects Topics. Get a holistic view of the history of Russia and world history and understand how to solve USE tests on history you can study, as well as on our USE preparation courses .

Sincerely, Andrey Puchkov

1. Law on Zemstvo Chiefs
2. Judicial conversions
3. Education reform
4. Censorship reforms
5. agrarian question
6. labor law
7. Results of the counter-reforms

Article summarizes reform policy Alexander III, which were essentially counter-reforms aimed at destroying the transformations carried out by Alexander II. Such a policy was largely caused by the activation of various revolutionary socio-political movements and the assassination of Alexander II.

The first steps of Alexander III on the path of counter-reforms
Most of the ministers were determined to continue the transformations begun by Alexander II. Their main opponent was Pobedonostsev, who managed to convince the new emperor that his father's reforms brought Russia only evil; a slow but steady movement towards eradicating the consequences of innovations is necessary. The emperor listened to the advice of Pobedonostsev. The result was the tsar's manifesto, published at the end of April 1881. From it it became clear that Russia would follow the path of counter-reforms. Ministers - supporters of reforms resigned.
From September 1881, at any time, emergency measures could be announced with the provision local authorities special powers, which actually meant the possibility of declaring martial law on any territory of the Russian Empire.

Law on Zemstvo Chiefs
The law on zemstvo chiefs (July 12, 1889) abolished the main provisions of the Judicial Charter of 1864. In all counties of the Russian Empire, a new position of zemstvo chiefs was introduced, combining administrative and judicial power in their hands and reporting only to the governor and chairman of the county assembly of the nobility. They were appointed directly by the Minister of the Interior. Zemsky chiefs were to be appointed from the nobility, for whom, moreover, there was a qualification ( higher education, long-term residence on the territory of land holdings). In fact, the zemstvo chiefs exercised administrative and police control over the peasants, monitored the collection of taxes, and applied corporal punishment. According to the idea of ​​the author of the project, Count Tolstoy, an idyllic patriarchal system was to be created with a chief - the patron of his peasants. Even supporters of this opinion argued that the success of the reform would depend entirely on the personal qualities of the zemstvo chiefs, on their real concern for the needs of the subject peasant population. In practice, everything turned out differently. In fact, the reform meant the return of the subordination of the peasants to the landlords.

Zemstvo and city counter-reforms (1890-1892)
Zemstvo reform was aimed at embedding zemstvos into a centralized system of state power. She was supposed to draw a sharp line between the estates and increase the influence of the nobles in the zemstvos. According to it, the number of vowels from the landowners doubled due to a decrease in the property qualification. For residents of cities, the property qualification increased. Peasants could not directly choose vowels, but had to first submit a list of candidates for vowels for the consideration of the governor. At the same time, peasants could only propose candidates from their class.
According to the City Regulations, a new procedure for elections to city Dumas was established. Owners of large real estate received a significant advantage. All decisions of the Duma had to be approved by the governor. Accordingly, city administration also again fell under the full control of the government.

Judicial conversions
The main reform in the judiciary was the already mentioned association of administrative and judicial authorities in the person of zemstvo chiefs. The property and educational qualifications for jurors increased. Cases of "resistance to the authorities" were withdrawn from their jurisdiction. In general, the courts fell under state and noble control.

Education reform
One of the measures to reform education was the opening of parochial schools, which was supposed to strengthen the moral state of society. The lowest level of education is the so-called. literacy schools, where teachers were not even required to special education were transferred to the jurisdiction of the Holy Synod.
The reform of higher education was expressed in the University Charter of 1884, which effectively abolished the existing freedoms and privileges of universities. The programs of the universities, mainly for the faculties of law and philology, were drawn up by the reactionary Ministry of Education. The government itself appointed rectors and professors, tuition fees increased, students were under special supervision.
Measures were taken to limit the education of people from non-noble estates. The government of Alexander III believed that the darker and ignorant the people, the easier it would be to manage them.

Censorship reforms
In 1882, new rules for the press were introduced, which increased censorship, and a number of publications were closed. Periodicals that received three warnings could be released only if they submitted materials for release for censorship consideration no later than 11 pm before the day of publication. Naturally, this was an almost impossible condition for daily newspapers. A council of four ministers had the right to a complete deprivation of publishing rights.

agrarian question
To the credit of Alexander III, it should be said that he took some measures to try to improve the peasant situation. When state lands were leased, priority was given to landless peasants (before that, most of these lands were leased to entrepreneurs and wealthy peasants who did not use the land directly, but only received income from them). The lease term was 12 years. Redemption payments were reduced, and the redemption itself became mandatory. The peasant temporarily obligated position was canceled, which kept them still dependent. The Peasants' Bank was established to help poor peasants buy land. However, the activities of the bank did not bring significant results. During the 10 years of the bank's existence, peasant land ownership increased by 1% with its assistance. The poll tax from the peasants was first reduced, and then completely abolished.

Landless peasants throughout the 19th century. made unauthorized migration beyond the Urals. The government could not fight it and only made feeble attempts to legalize this process. However, the legal red tape associated with this repelled the peasantry and the process of unauthorized resettlement continued, amounting to about 40 thousand people by the end of the century. in year. Finally, in July 1889, the Resettlement Act was published. According to it, the permission of the Minister of Internal Affairs (before that, also the Minister of State Property) was necessary for resettlement. To facilitate settling in a new place, the settlers were completely exempted from taxes for the first three years, and for another three years they could pay them at 50%. A small amount of financial and in-kind assistance was given.

labor law
During the reign of Alexander III, the first attempts were made to improve the situation of the workers, to reduce the excessive exploitation of labor. The labor of children under 12 was prohibited. The maximum working time for was limited to 11 and a half hours. The terms of conclusion and termination were determined employment contracts workers with entrepreneurs. Finally, the night work of women and minors was prohibited.

Results of the counter-reforms
The murder of his father greatly influenced Alexander III. He was against the ongoing reforms, considering them unacceptable to the Russian autocracy. The tragedy only strengthened his thoughts. The reaction that began during the years of his reign was aimed at returning the power of the central government, relying on the nobility. The sprouts of freedom sown by Alexander II were trampled down, and measures were taken to preserve the existing system. This, of course, significantly hampered the development of the Russian Empire. The most reactionary were the measures in relation to legal proceedings, education and increased censorship.

Only measures aimed at improving the condition of the workers and peasants can be recognized as positive. These measures did not bring significant results, but the very fact of recognizing their necessity makes it possible to treat the reactionary government of Alexander III with greater sympathy.

Accession to the throne of AlexanderIII. After the assassination of Alexander II and the accession to the throne of Alexander III, the maneuvering policy is gradually replaced by a new course. The supporters of reaction are gaining the upper hand over the supporters of concessions and reforms. Soon, on April 29, 1881, the tsar's manifesto compiled by Pobedonostsev was published, which announced the inviolability of autocratic power and that it would be protected by the new tsar "from any encroachments on it."

Reasons for the transition to counter-reforms:

1. The fear of the court circles before the development of the revolutionary movement, in support of which the liberals were blamed. Alexander Sh preferred to rely on the reactionaries: D.A. Tolstoy, K.P. Pobedonostsev, V.P. Meshchersky. The authorities saw their support in the nobility and the patriarchal peasantry. Characteristically, the reactionaries were not interested in the position of the peasants themselves, which subsequently led to gross miscalculations in politics.

2. The modernization of society that began under Alexander II itself gave rise to its own opponents and multiplied their ranks. The autocracy only tried to stand at the head of these forces and use them in its own interests.

"Counter-reforms" of AlexanderIII. Turning sharply towards the pre-reform order, Alexander III, Pobedonostsev and their like-minded people acted logically in their own way. From their point of view, the transformations of the previous reign did not bring Russia either peace or proper international prestige. Having infringed on the rights of the nobility, Alexander II did not acquire new allies for the monarchy. However, the counter-reformers forgot one thing - the country cannot return to the same point historical development which she left 20 years ago.

During the year after the death of Alexander II, there were some hesitations and disagreements in the ruling spheres about the further direction of domestic policy.

The new Tsar Alexander III, who began his reign execution of Narodnaya Volya Zhelyabov, Sofia Perovskaya and Kibalchich. He had an aversion to all the progressive movements of the century, they were all "lousy liberalism" for him. He had boundless faith in the police baton, and deservedly earned the nickname ‘the watchman on the throne’.

One of the main inspirers of the reactionary policy was K. Pobedonostsev, 'Ober-Procurator' of the Most Holy Synod. In the slightest concessions public opinion he saw the death of Russia. D. Tolstoy, who became the Minister of the Interior in 1882, like Pobedostsev, enjoyed enormous influence under Alexander III. It was an inveterate enemy of literature and the press, of true enlightenment.

The first step in the implementation of the new course was the adoption of " Provisions on measures for fencing public order and public peace"(1881). According to him, any area could be declared by the Minister of the Interior in the position of enhanced or emergency protection. This gave the local authorities the right to issue binding decrees, to close commercial, industrial and educational institutions, to prohibit meetings and the activities of press organs, to expel "suspicious" and "harmful" persons in an administrative manner.

In August 1882, new INTERIM REGULATIONS ON PRINTING. The meeting of the four ministers received the right to close any publications and forbid objectionable persons to engage in journalistic activities. According to them, after the third warning, the publication was suspended.

Since 1883 they began to operate SECURITY DEPARTMENTS(okhrana) gendarmerie bodies that specialized in undercover work.

In 1884 was published NEW UNIVERSITY CHARTER,destroying university autonomy. The university was headed by a trustee and a rector appointed by the Minister of Public Education, endowed with broad administrative powers; the rights and importance of academic colleges and councils were correspondingly narrowed. Professors were appointed by the minister, and deans by the trustee of the educational district, the universities were completely dependent on the trustees. The position of students was regulated in detail by special rules. Universities were made completely dependent on the Minister of Education and the trustees of educational districts.

In 1887, the Minister of Public Education I.D. Delyanov published " CIRCULAR ABOUT COOKING CHILDREN". He closed access to the gymnasium for the children of coachmen, lackeys, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers, etc. All these measures were aimed at reviving class in education. For the same purpose, tuition fees have been increased.

July 12, 1889 was published" REGULATIONS ON ZEMSKIY DISTRICT HEADS", his goal was to create" a strong and close to the people power. Each county was divided into sections, to which district zemstvo chiefs were appointed from local hereditary nobles who had land holdings in this county and a higher or secondary education. The zemstvo chief concentrated in his hands tight control over the peasant communities, administrative and judicial power. They could suspend any decision of the village meeting and the volost court, appoint volost judges, impose monetary fines and subject to administrative arrests at their discretion. The World Court was destroyed, and its rights were transferred to the zemstvo chiefs.

Published in 1890 NEW REGULATION ON zemstvo institutions strengthened the role of the noble element in zemstvo institutions, the control of the administration over these institutions. Government control over the zemstvos was sharply strengthened. For this, special institutions were created in the provinces - provincial offices for zemstvo affairs- from among the officials and all district marshals of the nobility under the chairmanship of the governor.

Was introduced NEW URBAN REGULATION 1892 , according to which the procedure for elections to city dumas was also changed. Only owners of immovable property worth at least 3,000 rubles in the capitals, 1,500 rubles in provincial towns, and 1,000 rubles in other cities were allowed to vote. Only the nobility, the big bourgeoisie, and some part of the middle bourgeoisie now took part in the elections. The number of voters has dropped sharply.

- Changing the judiciary. There were district courts, whose members considered the cases seized from the justices of the peace, but not transferred to the zemstvo chiefs. In cities, instead of justices of the peace, city judges appeared, appointed by the Minister of Justice. In addition, in 1885, along with the cassation departments of the Senate, a special administrative (First) presence was organized. In 1887, the court was given the right to close the doors of meetings declaring the pending case "delicate", "confidential" or "secret"

Revival and development of the theory of official nationality.

A number of measures have been taken to FORCED RUSIFICATION OF THE OUTSIDE, which consisted in the persecution of “gentiles” (non-Christians), in setting one nation against another. A number of restrictive measures were taken against the Jews. The Jewish Pale of Settlement was reduced, and within limits. In 1887, the infamous "PERCENT RATE" was introduced for Jewish children when entering educational institutions.

Results and significance of counter-reforms. The transition of autocracy in the early 80s. to a direct and undisguised reaction became possible as a result of the defeat of the revolutionaries in 1881, the weakness of the serf and labor movement, and the impotence of the liberal opposition.

The main task that the autocracy set itself was to strengthen the class of landlords, whose positions were undermined by the conditions of the socio-economic development of post-reform Russia. However, the policy of "counter-reforms" did not at all speak of the strength of the autocracy. It testified to the growing fear of the intensifying class struggle both in the city and in the countryside.

However, the reaction failed to carry out the program of counter-reforms to the extent that it had been conceived. The reaction's attempt to follow the path of "correction fatal mistakes 60s.” (bourgeois reforms) was frustrated by the new upsurge of the revolutionary movement that began in the mid-1990s. The proletariat stepped into the arena of revolutionary struggle, rousing the masses to a conscious political struggle.

Federal Agency for Education

Chita Institute (branch)

SEI HPE "Baikal State University of Economics and Law"

Department of Theory and History of State and Law

TEST

ON THE HISTORY OF THE NATIONAL STATE AND LAW

OPTION #4

Completed by: a student of the OZO

PLAN

1. Counter-reforms of Alexander III.

1. Personality of Alexander III………………………………………………..3

2. Counter-reforms of Alexander III……………………………………...5

2.1. Zemstvo……………………………………………………………….5

2.2. City government…………………………………….....6

2.3. Court……………………………………………………………………..7

2.4. Education…………………………………………………………….8

2.5. Printing………………………………………………………………….9

2.6. Counter-reforms in the socio-economic sphere……………10

3. The results of the counter-reforms……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

II. Incidents

1. The solution of the incident according to the text of the Charter for the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility…………..12

2. The decision of the incident according to the text of the Fundamentals of the Criminal Legislation of the USSR and the Union Republics………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

References

I. Counter-reforms of Alexander III.

1. Personality of Alexander III.

Alexander III was born in 1845. He was the second son of Alexander II, and he was not prepared for the throne. On March 1, 1881, after the assassination of Emperor Alexander II by terrorists, Alexander III ascended the throne. Alexander received the usual military education for great princes. He did not excel in his studies. Teachers considered him a diligent slow-witted. The elder brother of Alexander III, Nikolai, died of tuberculosis in 1865, and after his death, Alexander Alexandrovich became the heir to the throne. By this time, Alexander Alexandrovich was already an established person, with certain views, inclinations, and horizons. He soon married a Danish princess, the bride of his late brother, at his dying request.

Having ascended the throne, he made it his task to complete the reforms of Alexander II.

However, in the first half of the 1880s, under the influence of economic development and the prevailing political situation, the government of Alexander III was forced to carry out a number of reforms. In 1882, a peasant bank was established, with the help of which peasants could acquire landed property. This decision was made by Speransky, but did not receive the support of Alexander I. This decision was a natural step before the abolition of taxes and the permission to buy land. In 1890, a new position was introduced - the zemstvo chief, who concentrated administrative and judicial power in his hands. It was a step back towards autocracy, but it was necessary, since today's Russia was not ready for democracy. The year 1884 was marked by the introduction of a new university charter - military gymnasiums were transformed into cadet corps. With the resignation of the Minister of the Interior, Count N.I. Ignatiev, and the appointment of Count D.A. Tolstoy to this post, a period of open reaction began. During the reign of Alexander III, administrative arbitrariness increased significantly. Administrative arbitrariness was strengthened by a series of decrees in 1890.

In order to develop new lands under Alexander III, the resettlement of peasant families to Siberia proceeded at a rapid pace. The government, to some extent, took care of improving the life of workers - rules were introduced on hiring for rural and factory work, the supervision of which was entrusted to factory inspectors, and the work of minors and women was limited.

In foreign policy during these years, there was a deterioration in Russian-German relations and there was a gradual rapprochement between Russia and France, ending with the conclusion of the Franco-Russian alliance (1891-1893).

2. Counter-reforms of Alexander III.

The reign of Emperor Alexander III (1881-1894) became a kind of historical pause - a time of reflection on the great transformations of the previous reign and a time of reaction that replaced the reformist onslaught of the previous 20th anniversary. In historical science, this time was called the era of counter-reforms.

The measures of the government of Alexander III, called counter-reforms, consisted in revising many of the achievements of the previous course in such important areas of Russian society as zemstvo, city government, courts, education and the press.

2.1 Zemstvo

In 1864, the creation of zemstvo institutions began. This meant the revival of the ancient zemstvo with its idea of ​​popular representation and self-government bodies independent of the central government. The role of the latter was reduced to nothing at the end of the 17th century.

According to the new “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” of 1890, the zemstvo was transformed. The nobility got the opportunity to elect most of the elected zemstvo figures - vowels. The property qualification (the minimum level of income giving the right to a representative of one or another class to participate in the activities of zemstvo institutions) was reduced for the nobility and increased for the urban population. Peasants generally lost the right to choose vowels, since now they were appointed by the governor from among the peasant electors - persons authorized by peasant societies to participate in elections.

The newly elected zemstvo vowels were approved by the governor, which placed the zemstvo institutions under the strict control of the state. In fact, it crossed out main idea zemstvos - independence from state authorities and the tsar in resolving issues of local self-government. The meaning of the zemstvo counter-reform was to nullify the possibility of participation in the work of the zemstvo bodies of "random" (undesirable for the regime) people, to increase the representation of the nobility - the support of the throne, and ultimately to make the zemstvos loyal to the autocratic authorities. All these measures reflected the opposition of the tsar and the nobility to the democratic Russian zemstvo (“land”, “people”) - an opposition that goes deep into Russian history.

2.2) City government

The city counter-reform pursued exactly the same goals as the zemstvo one: to weaken the elective principle, narrow the range of issues addressed by the city self-government bodies, and expand the scope of government powers. According to the new city regulation of 1892, the property qualification, which gave the right to participate in elections, increased. As a result, the number of voters in Moscow, for example, decreased three times. The provision that city dumas and councils act independently was withdrawn from the legislation. The intervention of the tsarist administration in their affairs was consolidated. The government received the right not to approve the officially elected mayor - the chairman of the city duma. The number of meetings of the latter was limited. Thus, city self-government was, in fact, turned into a kind of public service.

2.3). Court

The judicial system of Russia - the most successful brainchild of the reformers removed from power - did not undergo any significant changes at that time. The judicial statutes of 1864 continued to operate successfully. However, publicity was limited in legal proceedings in political cases: the publication of reports on political trials was prohibited. All cases of violent actions against officials were withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the jury.

Significant changes have taken place in the lower judiciary. The magistrates' courts, which, in addition to dealing with petty cases, resolved disputes between peasants and landlords, were largely liquidated. They survived only in three large cities - Moscow, St. Petersburg and Odessa. Justices of the peace were replaced by zemstvo district chiefs, whose positions were granted exclusively to noblemen with a high property qualification. In contrast to the magistrate's court, which was entrusted with reaching an agreement between peasants and landowners, zemstvo chiefs resolved all contentious issues individually, with an eye on the local state administration.

2.4).Education

Since the students were considered the main source of free-thinking, a hotbed of republican ideas and all sorts of unrest, Russian universities became one of the first victims of the protective course. The new university charter of 1884 abolished their autonomy. The university court was liquidated, any student associations were prohibited. Teachers elected by academic councils were necessarily approved in their positions by the Minister of Education. The entire university life was now led by a state official - the trustee of the educational district: he appointed deans (one of the highest elected positions of the university), had the right to convene an academic council, attend its meetings, and oversee teaching. The state did not forget to remind students about the "duty of military duty": conscription benefits for those with higher education were limited, and the minimum period of military service was increased.

The inspirer and main organizer of the counter-reforms in the field of education, Count I. D. Delyanov, the Minister of Public Education since 1882, also authored the infamous circular "about the cook's children." In this document, it was recommended to limit the admission to the gymnasium and pro-gymnasium "of the children of coachmen, lackeys, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers and similar people, whose children, with the exception of perhaps gifted with extraordinary abilities, should not at all be taken out of the environment to which they belong." In secondary and higher educational institutions, the admission of persons of Jewish nationality was reduced. The circular, however, did not have any real consequences, remaining in the history of Russian education as an example of the exceptional limitations of state officials.

2.5). Seal

The first experience of freedom of speech was interrupted after the approval in August 1882 of the new "Provisional Rules on the Press" (which became permanent). The administration received the right to close any newspapers and magazines and deprive publishers and editors of the right to continue their professional activities. The editorial offices were obliged to disclose the pseudonyms of their authors at the request of the authorities. Increased censorship.

In accordance with the new legislation, in 1884 the journal Otechestvennye Zapiski, hated by the government, ceased to exist, edited by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. But the newspaper of M. N. Katkov (1818-1887) Moskovskie Vedomosti flourished. Exactly in the 80s. This is the final period of activity of this famous Russian publicist, who at one time was known as a liberal and did a lot to expand the range of issues allowed for discussion in the press. But from the mid-60s, and especially after the establishment of a new government course under Alexander III, Katkov did a lot to strengthen the protective spirit and intolerance in the country of those in power. Possessing great journalistic talent and a reputation as a liberal, he managed to instill doubt in the minds of his readers about the need to continue the reforms, which he declared as a whole as “unsuccessful”: “A few more months, perhaps weeks of the former regime,” he wrote on the occasion of the manifesto on April 29 1881 - and the collapse would have been inevitable.

2.6. Counter-reforms in the socio-economic sphere

The reactionary nature of the government of Alexander III also manifested itself in the socio-economic sphere. An attempt to protect the interests of the ruined landlords led to a tougher policy towards the peasantry, as a result of which, in order to prevent the emergence of a rural bourgeoisie, the family divisions of the peasants were limited and obstacles were put up for the alienation of peasant allotments. However, in the conditions of the increasingly complicated international situation, the government could not but encourage the development of capitalist relations, and primarily in the field of industrial production, although it did this not very consistently. Priority was given to enterprises and industries of strategic importance. A policy of their encouragement and state protection was carried out, which actually turned them into monopolists. As a result of these actions, threatening disproportions were growing, which could lead to economic and social upheavals.

RESULTS

The reactionary transformations of the 1880s and 1890s were called counter-reforms. Their successful implementation was due to the lack of forces in Russian society that would be able to create an effective opposition to government policy. The counter-reforms did not achieve their goals: society could no longer be stopped in its development. To top it all off, they extremely aggravated relations between the government and society.

In general, the era of counter-reforms did not lead to fundamental political and social changes. Measures aimed at breaking down the established after the reforms of Alexander II public structure, did not differ in consistency, their pro-noble character contradicted the course of economic development. Ultimately, they created a deceptive impression of the inviolability of the autocratic system.

II. Incidents.

Case number 1. Solution.

According to Art. 15 Letters on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility "May corporal punishment not touch the noble."

Consequently, the governor was wrong, he should not have given the order to flog Timashevsky.

Case number 2. Solution.

According to Art. 10 of the Fundamentals of the Criminal Legislation of the USSR and the Union Republics of December 25, 1958. “Persons who have committed a crime at the age of fourteen to sixteen years are subject to criminal liability only for murder, intentional infliction of bodily harm ...”. Measures of an educational nature may be applied to persons under the age of eighteen, if the crime committed by them does not pose a great public danger.

And since the minors Glyzin and Adov committed murder - a crime that poses a great public danger, then

the application of educational measures of punishment to them is not possible.

References:

Regulations:

1. Diploma on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility dated 21.04. 1785. Russian legislation of the X-XX centuries. in 9 v. T 5 Legislation of the period of the dawn of absolutism. Legal Literature, 1987.

2. Fundamentals of the criminal legislation of the USSR and the Union republics of December 25, 1958.

Educational literature:

1. Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia XIX century. - M.: Enlightenment, 1994

2. Kinyapina D.S. Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. - M .: Bustard, 2005

3. Pashkov B.G. Russia - Russia - Russian Empire. Chronicle of the reigns and events of 862-1917. – 2nd edition. - M.: TsentrKom, 1997

   Alexandra III 2. Background counter-reforms 80-90s of the XIX century 3. ... domestic politics autocracy under Alexandra III did not involve counter-reforms. At the same time, a number of ...

Alexander III. After the assassination of Emperor Alexander II the Liberator by Narodnaya Volya terrorists on March 1, 1881, Emperor Alexander III (1881–1894) took the throne. Alexander Alexandrovich first prepared for military career, and not to rule the country, as he was the second son of Alexander II. However, after the death of the heir (Nikolai), he began to be involved in state affairs. He began to participate in meetings of the State Council and the Cabinet of Ministers, so to speak, to undergo an internship and at the same time master the course of sciences necessary for the monarch. The worldview of Alexander III was greatly influenced by law professor K.P. Pobedonostsev, who was among the teachers of the future emperor.

After the regicide, Alexander III showed some confusion and even appointed a regent in case of his own violent death- his brother Vladimir. It is not surprising that from the first steps state activity The new monarch began a policy of counter-reforms, which became one of the main reasons for the first bourgeois-democratic revolution in Russia.

The new emperor Alexander III hesitated for a long time before considering the project of M.T. Loris-Melikov, actually approved by his predecessor. Finally, on March 8, 1881, the project was submitted for discussion by the Council of Ministers. At a meeting with the participation of the emperor, nine ministers spoke out in support of the ideas of the project, and five ministers and K.P. Pobedonostsev spoke out against the constitutional reform.

Alexander III, after listening to the ministers, rejected the "constitution of Loris-Melikov". The emperor called constitutional ideas criminal, called on his subjects to serve him faithfully, to protect autocratic power. In protest resigned: author of the project M.T. Loris-Melikov, Minister of War D.A. Milyutin, Minister of Finance A.A. Abaza and some other liberal-minded officials. One of them, addressing the emperor, wrote: "History will judge us." At the time, this was an unheard-of audacity.

The new government of Alexander III took a course towards strengthening the autocracy, strengthening the role of the nobility and strengthening the repressive apparatus. It was for this purpose that Alexander III adopted legal acts that buried all hope of liberal minds for progressive changes in state power and administration, for the creation of a constitutional monarchy in Russia.

Already in April 1881, the tsar's manifesto "On the inviolability of autocracy" appeared, hastily prepared by K.P. Pobedonostsev. The manifesto buried the liberals' hopes for constitutional changes in the political system. This legal act became a turning point in the policy of tsarism, the beginning of counter-reforms.

The main directions of counter-reforms. Counter-reforms were carried out almost simultaneously in several directions. Judicial, zemstvo, city counter-reforms were carried out, other measures were taken to tighten the regime: censorship was intensified, restrictions were introduced in the field of public education, and the rights of national minorities were limited.

The main activities of the new government were the eradication of freethinking and sedition, the protection of the existing regime, and the curtailment of liberal reforms.

K.P. Pobedonostsev, appointed to the post of Chief Procurator of the Synod, proposed "freeze Russia": cover up "talking shops", zemstvos, democratic and liberal publications. On his initiative and with the approval of the monarch, in August 1881, a special "Regulations on measures to protect state order and public peace" was adopted. According to the Regulation, the authorities could:

- without trial or investigation to expel unwanted persons;

– to close educational institutions without trial due to student unrest;

- declare any province, county in the position of "reinforced and emergency protection";

- introduce security departments to combat revolutionary sedition, etc.

In 1882, a censorship charter was introduced that limited the freedom of the press. The new university charter, published in 1884, abolished the autonomy of higher educational institutions, canceled the election of the rector, dean and professors. University professors began to be appointed by order of the Minister of Public Education. Vigilant supervision was established for the students. The tuition fees at universities have been increased.

New circular of the Minister of Public Education I.D. Delyanova, published in 1887, actually closed access to the gymnasium for children of low-income parents. It contained instructions that "the children of coachmen, lackeys, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers and the like ... should not be taken out of the environment to which they belong." Therefore, the circular of 1887 was popularly called "about the cook's children". Disciplinary sanctions were strengthened in schools. school teachers felt even greater control from the priests and local authorities.

Judicial counter-reform It began with a change in the existing procedure for conducting an inquiry and preliminary investigation. The rights of the gendarmerie in these institutions were expanded, which undoubtedly led to a reduction in the powers of full-time forensic investigators.

In 1878, after the assassination by Narodnik terrorists of General Mezentsev, who headed the gendarme department, a law was passed that changed the jurisdiction of cases of state crimes. They were transferred under the jurisdiction military courts. Cases of armed resistance to the authorities, attacks on police officials and other officials in the performance of their duties were transferred to the military district courts.

The Imperial Decree of May 20, 1885 introduced the Supreme Disciplinary Presence of the Senate, which received the right to remove or move judges to a lower position. Proposals on such measures of influence on judges were prepared by the Ministry of Justice.

In February 1887, a decree appeared that allowed any business at the discretion of superiors declared secret, and the hearing was to be held behind closed doors.

In 1889, the powers of jurors were limited, and in 1891, the openness of the civil court.

A serious blow was dealt to the institution of magistrates. In 1889, the “Regulations on Zemstvo district chiefs” were published, according to which the election of magistrates was abolished, county presences for peasant affairs were abolished. In districts, instead of justices of the peace, the positions of zemstvo district chiefs were introduced. Zemsky district chiefs were appointed by the governor from local nobles in agreement with the marshal of the nobility. Their nominations were approved by the Minister of the Interior. They had to have a noble rank, three years of experience in judicial institutions and sufficient education. Zemstvo district chiefs were entrusted with police and judicial functions. They were empowered to consider land disputes, to oversee the communal peasant self-government, volost peasant courts. Criminal and civil cases, which previously belonged to the magistrates' courts, were transferred to their jurisdiction.

The confusion of administrative, supervisory, judicial, police powers, of course, contradicted essential principle legal reform in 1864 - the separation of the functions of the administration, police and court. In fairness, it should be noted that in Moscow, St. Petersburg and Odessa, the institution of magistrates was preserved.

In 1892, in connection with the growth of the revolutionary, including the workers', movement, martial law law, which allowed the introduction of a special regime in areas "dangerous in a revolutionary sense." The law endowed the Minister of the Interior, governors-general with emergency powers. For resistance to the authorities, under the laws of martial law, the death penalty was introduced by hanging.

Zemstvo self-government counter-reform(1890) met the interests of the nobility. In connection with the introduction of new zemstvo chiefs, the tsarist government revised the provision on zemstvo and city local governments. According to the new Regulations on Zemstvos, instead of the qualification principle for the formation of local governments, class principle acquisition. Changes were made to the rules for electing representatives, which led to the fact that in local governments the vast majority now consisted of personal and hereditary nobles.

New order The formation of local governments led to the fact that the number of deputies to the zemstvo assembly from the peasants decreased, and from the nobles, on the contrary, increased. Now the governor himself could appoint representatives to the zemstvos from among the peasant electors. At the same time, the control of government bodies over the activities of zemstvos and city governments was strengthened. Administrative functions and judicial power were transferred into the hands of zemstvo landowners, to whom rural and volost assemblies began to obey.

Urban counter-reform significantly increased the property qualification, which ensured the reduction of the representatives of the poor in the city duma and increased the number of the rich in the dumas by about three times. The new City Regulations (1892) significantly raised the level of property qualification for city voters. Thus, not only representatives of small business, but also part of the middle bourgeoisie were excluded from the elections to the city local governments.

Both zemstvo and city counter-reforms were carried out in order to limit the powers of liberal local governments, to strengthen the influence of the conservative nobility in them, tighten control by provincial and government officials.

As can be seen from the above facts, the counter-reforms intensified year by year and affected many areas Russian state and rights. They were aimed at strengthening the autocracy, but, ultimately, served as the preconditions for popular anger, which resulted in the first Russian revolution of 1905–1907.

It should be borne in mind that the reactionary measures were to some extent a response to revolutionary, anti-government speeches and were caused primarily by the assassination of Alexander II. It would be wrong to say that during the reign of Alexander III, only counter-reforms were carried out in Russia and nothing positive was done. The economic policy of Alexander III contributed to the more rapid development of capitalism in our country.