Crystallization of Romantic Ideas and Artistic Forms in the Age of Restoration. lamartine

During the third century that passed from the fall of Napoleon to the creation of the Second Republic in 1848, France lived an intense political life. The restoration of royal power and the accession of the exiled Bourbon dynasty (1815) did not meet the interests of the country. Public opinion, which expressed the feelings and thoughts of the vast majority of the population of France, was sharply opposed to the Bourbon government, whose supporters were the most reactionary social forces - the landed aristocracy and the Catholic Church. The royal government tried to contain the growing wave of social discontent with repressions, censorship bans, and terror. And yet, anti-feudal sentiments, overt or covert criticism of the existing order, were expressed in various forms: in newspaper and magazine articles, in literary criticism, in works of fiction, in works on history and, of course, in the theater.

During the 20s of the 19th century, romanticism in France took shape as the leading artistic movement, whose figures developed the theory of romantic literature and romantic drama and entered into a decisive struggle against classicism. Having lost all connection with advanced social thought, classicism during the years of the Restoration turned into an official style of the Bourbon monarchy. The connection of classicism with the reactionary ideology of the legitimist monarchy, the alienness of its aesthetic principles to the tastes of broad democratic strata, its routine and inertia, which prevented the free development of new trends in art - all this gave rise to that temperament and social passion that distinguished the struggle of the romantics against the classics.

These features of romanticism, along with its characteristic condemnation of bourgeois reality, made it close to the critical realism that was being formed at the same time, which in this period was, as it were, part of the romantic movement. No wonder the greatest theorists of romanticism were both the romantic Hugo and the realist Stendhal. We can say that the realism of Stendhal, Mérimée and Balzac was painted in romantic tones, and this was especially pronounced in the dramatic works of the last two.

The struggle of romanticism with classicism in the 1920s was expressed mainly in literary controversy (Stendhal's work "Racine and Shakespeare", Hugo's preface to his drama "Cromwell"). Romantic drama penetrated the stages of French theaters with difficulty. Theaters were still strongholds of classicism. But the romantic drama in those years had an ally in the person of melodrama, which had established itself in the repertoire of the boulevard theaters in Paris and had a great influence on the tastes of the public, on modern drama and stage art.

Having lost during the years of the Consulate and the Empire the direct revolutionary character that distinguished the plays of Monvel and Lamartelier, the melodrama retained the features of the genre born by the democratic theater of Paris. This was expressed both in the choice of heroes, usually rejected by society and laws or suffering from injustice, and in the nature of the plots, usually built on a sharp clash of contrasting principles of good and evil. This conflict, for the sake of the moral feeling of the democratic public, has always been resolved by the victory of good, or, in any case, by the punishment of vice. The democratism of the genre was also manifested in the general accessibility of melodrama, which, long before the appearance of the literary and theatrical manifestos of the romantics, rejected all the restrictive laws of classicism and practically affirmed one of the basic principles of romantic theory - the principle of complete freedom of artistic creativity. The installation of the melodramatic theater was also democratic, aiming at the maximum interest of the viewer in the events of the play. After all, entertaining as a feature of the general accessibility of art was part of the concept of folk theater, the traditions of which theorists and practitioners of romanticism wanted to revive. Striving for the greatest power of emotional impact on the viewer, the theater of melodrama intensively used a variety of means from the arsenal of stage effects: "pure changes" of scenery, music, noise, light, etc.

Romantic drama will make extensive use of the techniques of melodrama, which in turn in the twenties, in terms of the nature of ideological problems, gradually approached romantic drama.

The creator of the post-revolutionary melodrama and one of the "classics" of this genre was Guilbert de Pixerecourt (1773 - 1844). His numerous plays interested the public already with their enticing titles: "Victor, or the Child of the Forest" (1797), "Selina, or the Child of Mystery" (1800), "The Man of Three Persons" (1801) and others. plots and stage effects, were not devoid of humanistic and democratic tendencies. In the drama "Victor, or the Child of the Forest" Pixerekur gave the image of a young foundling who does not know his parents, which, however, does not prevent him from commanding universal respect for his virtues. In addition, his father in the end turns out to be a nobleman who became the leader of a gang of robbers and embarked on this path in order to punish vice and protect the weak. In the play "The Man of Three Persons", a virtuous and courageous hero, a Venetian patrician, unjustly condemned by the Doge and the Senate and forced to hide under different names, exposes a criminal conspiracy and finally saves his homeland.

Pixerekur was generally attracted by the images of strong and noble heroes who take on the high mission of fighting injustice. In the melodrama "Tekeli" (1803), he refers to the image of the hero of the national liberation movement in Hungary. Echoes of social conflicts sounded in the melodramas of Pixerecour, softened by moralizing didacticism and an emphasis on external showiness.

Of the works of another well-known author of melodramas, Louis Charles Quesnier (1762 - 1842), the play "The Thief Magpie" (1815) had the greatest success in France and abroad. In it, the democratic tendencies of melodrama manifested themselves almost with the greatest force. Ordinary people from the people are depicted with great sympathy in the play - the heroine of the play, Annette, a servant in the house of a wealthy farmer, and her father, a soldier who was forced to flee the army for insulting an officer. Annette is accused of stealing silverware. An unjust judge sentences her to death. And only an accidental discovery of the missing silver in the magpie's nest saves the heroine. The melodrama Kenye was well known in Russia. The story of M. S. Shepkin about the tragic fate of the serf actress who played the role of Annette was used by A. I. Herzen in the story "The Thieving Magpie".

Over the course of the 1920s, melodrama acquires an increasingly gloomy hue, becoming romanticized, so to speak.

So, in the famous melodrama of Victor Ducange (1783 - 1833) "Thirty Years, or the Life of a Gambler" (1827), the theme of man's struggle with fate sounds tense. Her hero, an ardent young man, throws himself into a card game, seeing in it the illusion of fighting fate. Falling under the hypnotic power of the excitement of the game, he loses everything, becomes a beggar. Overwhelmed by the persistent thought of cards and winnings, he becomes a criminal and eventually dies, almost killing his own son. Through the heaps of horrors and all sorts of stage effects, this melodrama reveals a serious and significant theme - the condemnation of modern society, where youthful aspirations, heroic impulses to fight fate turn into evil, selfish passions. The play entered the repertoire of the greatest tragic actors of the first half of the 19th century.

In 1830 - 1840, new themes appeared in French dramaturgy and theatrical repertoire, born of a new stage in the economic and political development of the country. The popular masses and democratic intelligentsia, who made the revolution of 1830, were republican and perceived the creation of the July Monarchy as a manifestation of a reaction hostile to the interests of the people and the country. The destruction of the monarchy and the proclamation of a republic becomes the political slogan of the democratic forces of France. The ideas of utopian socialism, perceived by the masses as ideas of social equality and the elimination of contradictions between the rich and the poor, are beginning to have a significant influence on social thought.

The theme of wealth and poverty acquired particular relevance in the context of the unprecedented enrichment of the bourgeois elite and the ruin and impoverishment of petty-bourgeois circles and workers, which was so characteristic of the July Monarchy.

Bourgeois-protective dramaturgy solved the problem of poverty and wealth as a problem of personal human virtues: wealth was interpreted as a reward for diligence, thrift and a virtuous life. Other writers, addressing this topic, sought to evoke sympathy and sympathy for the honest poor and condemned the cruelty and vices of the rich.

Of course, the ideological instability of petty-bourgeois democracy was reflected in such a moralistic interpretation of social contradictions. And in this case, decisive importance was attached to the moral qualities of a person, and the reward of honest poverty in such plays most often turned out to be unexpected wealth. And yet, despite their inconsistency, such works had a certain democratic orientation, were imbued with the pathos of condemning social injustice, and aroused sympathy for ordinary people.

The anti-monarchist theme and criticism of social inequality have become indisputable hallmarks social melodrama, in the 30s - 40s associated with the democratic traditions of the French theater of the previous decades. Its creator was Felix Pia (1810 - 1899). The work of a democratic writer, a republican and a member of the Paris Commune, had a great influence on theatrical life during the years of the July Monarchy. His best plays reflect the growth of revolutionary sentiment between the two revolutions of 1830-1848.

In 1835, on the stage of one of the democratic theaters in Paris, the Ambigue-Comique, the historical drama Ango, written by Pia in collaboration with Auguste Luche, was staged. Creating this anti-monarchist drama, Pia directed it against King Francis I, around whose name the noble historiography linked the legend of the national hero - the king-knight, enlightener and humanist. Pia wrote: "We attacked the royal power in the person of the most brilliant, most charming monarch." The drama was full of sharp political allusions to the monarchy of Louis Philippe and daring attacks against the royal power - "The court is a bunch of scoundrels, headed by the most shameless of them all - the king!" etc.

Despite the huge interest generated by the production, after thirty performances it was banned.

Pia's most significant work was his social melodrama The Parisian Ragged Man, presented for the first time in Paris at the Porte Saint-Martin Theater in May 1847. The play was a great and lasting success. She attracted the attention of Herzen, who gave in "Letters from France" a detailed analysis of the melodrama and the performance of the famous actor! Frederic Lemaitre, who played the title role. The ideological pathos of the play is an expression of the growing protest of the democratic masses against the high society of the July Monarchy, against bankers, stock speculators, titled rich and swindlers, seized with a thirst for enrichment, drowning in debauchery and luxury.

The main storyline of the play is the story of the rise and fall of the banker Hoffmann. In the prologue of the play, Pierre Garus, ruined and not inclined to earn a living by labor, kills and robs an artel worker on the Seine embankment. In the first act, the murderer and robber is already an important and respected person. Hiding his name and past, he skillfully took advantage of his prey, became a prominent banker - Baron Hoffmann. But he did not forget the former manners of a criminal.

Baron Hoffmann and the world of the rich, stained with blood, are opposed in the melodrama by an honest poor man, a rag-picker father Jean, a defender of innocence and a champion of justice, who was an accidental witness to the crime that marked the beginning of the career of Harus-Hoffmann. At the end of the play, Hoffmann is exposed and punished.

The happy ending of the play, although it did not correspond to the truth of life, expressed the social optimism inherent in democratic melodrama - the belief in the regularity of the victory of good and justice over the forces of evil.

Without delving into the essence and without giving a deep understanding of the social contradictions of life, the melodrama as a whole did not go further than philanthropic sympathy for the oppressed classes. The most significant ideological and artistic achievements were brought to the French theater by those playwrights whose works solved the great ideological tasks put forward by the struggle of democratic forces. The first of these was Victor Hugo.

Hugo

The greatest romantic playwright and theorist of the romantic theater was Victor Hugo. He was born into the family of a general in the Napoleonic army. The writer's mother came from a wealthy bourgeois family, sacredly adhering to monarchical views. Hugo's early literary experiences made him a reputation as a monarchist and classic. However, under the influence of the political atmosphere of pre-revolutionary France in the 1920s, Hugo overcomes his ideological and aesthetic conservatism, becomes a member of the romantic movement, and then the head of progressive, democratic romanticism.

The ideological pathos of Hugo's work was determined by the main features of his worldview: hatred of social injustice, protection of all the downtrodden and destitute, condemnation of violence and the preaching of humanism. These ideas fed Hugo's novels, his poetry, dramaturgy, journalism and political pamphlets.

Except for the early unpublished tragedies written by Hugo in his youth, the beginning of his drama is the romantic drama Cromwell (1827), the preface to which became the "tablets of romanticism." The main idea of ​​the preface is a rebellion against classicism and its aesthetic laws. “The time has come,” the author declares, “and it would be strange if in our era freedom, like light, penetrated everywhere, except for what is by nature the freest of everything in the world, except for the field of thought. Let us strike with a hammer at theories, poetics and systems! Let's knock down this old plaster that hides the facade of art! There are no rules, no patterns! .. Drama is a mirror in which nature is reflected. But if it is an ordinary mirror, with a flat and smooth surface, it will give a dull and flat reflection , true, but colorless; ... drama should be a concentrating mirror that ... turns flicker into light, and light into flame. Arguing with classicism, Hugo argues that the artist "should choose in the world of phenomena ... not the beautiful, but the characteristic" 1 .

1 (Hugo V. Selected dramas. L., 1937, v. 1, p. 37, 41.)

A very important place in the preface is occupied by the theory of the romantic grotesque, which was embodied and developed in the work of Hugo. "The grotesque is one of the great beauties of drama," writes Hugo. It is through the grotesque, which is understood by the author not only as an exaggeration, but as a combination, a combination of opposite and, as it were, mutually exclusive sides of reality, that the highest fullness of disclosure of this reality is achieved. Through the combination of high and low, tragic and funny, beautiful and ugly, we comprehend the diversity of life. For Hugo, Shakespeare was a model of an artist who ingeniously used the grotesque in art. The grotesque "penetrates everywhere, as if the lowest natures often have lofty impulses, then the highest ones often pay tribute to the vulgar and ridiculous. Therefore, he is always present on the stage ... he brings laughter, then horror into tragedy. He arranges meetings an apothecary with Romeo, three witches with Macbeth, a gravedigger with Hamlet."

Hugo does not deal directly with political issues. But the rebellious undertones of his manifesto spill out at times. The social meaning of the criticism of classicism is especially pronounced in Hugo's statement: "At the present time there is a literary old regime, like a political old regime."

"Cromwell" - this "impudently truthful drama", as Hugo called it - could not get on the stage. In the play, the author tried to embark on the artistic reform he had declared in the preface. However, he was prevented by the ideological uncertainty and dramatic immaturity of the work. The compositional friability, cumbersomeness and ineffectiveness became an insurmountable obstacle on the way of Hugo's work to the stage.

"Battle" at the premiere of "Ernani". Engraving by J. Granville

Hugo's next play, Marion Delorme (1829), is a brilliant embodiment of the ideological and creative principles of romanticism. In this drama, for the first time, Hugo has a romantic image of a hero of "low" origin, which is opposed to a court-aristocratic society. The plot of the play is based on the tragic conflict of the high and poetic love of the rootless youth Didier and the courtesan Marion Delorme with the inhumanity of royal power. Hugo determines the time of action very accurately - this is 1638. The author seeks to reveal the historical situation, the play talks about the war with Spain, the massacre of the Huguenots, the executions of duelists, there is a dispute about Corneille's "Sid", which premiered at the end of 1636, etc.

Didier and Marion are opposed by powerful enemies - the cruel, cowardly King Louis XIII, the "executioner in a red robe" - Cardinal Richelieu, a group of titled "golden youth", mocking lovers. Their forces are unequal, and the struggle cannot end otherwise than with the death of the heroes. But despite this, the moral beauty and purity of the spiritual world of Didier and Marion, their nobility, sacrifice and courage in the fight against evil are the key to the final triumph of good.

The image of Richelieu is written with special skill by the author. The cardinal is never shown to the audience, although the fate of all the heroes of the drama depends on him, all the characters, even the king, speak with horror about him. And only in the finale, in response to Marion's plea for the abolition of the death penalty, the ominous voice of the invisible cardinal, hidden behind the canopy of the stretcher, sounds: "No, she will not be canceled!"

"Marion Delorme" is a fine example of 19th century lyric poetry. Hugo's language in this play is lively and varied, colloquial speech with its naturalness is replaced by high pathos of love scenes, corresponding to the tragic love of Didier and Marion.

The drama, which was anti-royalist in nature, was banned.

Hugo's first drama to see the scene is Hernani (1830). This is typical romantic drama. The melodramatic events of the play take place against the spectacular backdrop of medieval Spain. There is no clearly expressed political program in this drama, but the whole ideological and emotional structure affirms freedom of feelings, defends the right of a person to defend his honor. Heroes are endowed with exceptional passions and fortitude, and they show them to the full in deeds, and in sacrificial love, and in noble generosity, and in the cruelty of revenge. Rebellious motives are expressed in the image of the main character - the robber Ernani, one of the galaxy of romantic avengers. The conflict between the noble robber and the king, and the clash of sublime, bright love with the gloomy world of feudal-knightly morality, which determine the tragic outcome of the drama, also have a social connotation. In accordance with the requirements of romanticism, all the most important events, which were reported by messengers in classicist tragedies, take place here on the stage. The action of the play was not limited by any classicist unities. The impetuous rhythms of the characters' emotional speech broke the slowly solemn sound of the Alexandrian verse of the classic drama.

The drama "Ernani" was staged at the beginning of 1830 by the theater "Comédie Française". The performance was in an atmosphere of stormy passions and the struggle that played out in the auditorium between the "classics" and "romantics". The production of Hernani in the best theater in Paris was a major victory for romanticism. She announced about early approval romantic drama on the French stage.

After the July Revolution of 1830, romanticism became the leading theatrical trend. In 1831, Hugo's drama "Marion Delorme" was staged, which was banned in the last years of the Bourbons. And after that, one after another, his plays enter the repertoire: The King Amuses himself (1832), Mary Tudor (1833), Ruy Blas (1838). Entertaining plots, full of vivid melodramatic effects, Hugo's dramas were a great success. But the main reason for their popularity was the socio-political orientation, which had a pronounced democratic character.

A scene from the drama "Ruy Blas" by V. Hugo. Theater "Renaissance", 1838

The democratic pathos of Hugo's dramaturgy is most fully expressed in the drama Ruy Blas. The action takes place in Spain at the end of the 17th century. But like Hugo's other historical plays, Ruy Blas is not a historical drama. The play is based on poetic fiction, the audacity and boldness of which determine the incredible nature of the events and the contrast of the images.

Ruy Blas is a romantic hero, full of high intentions and noble impulses. Once he dreamed of the good of his country and even of all mankind and believed in his high appointment. But, having achieved nothing in life, he is forced to become a lackey of a rich and noble nobleman, close to the royal court. The evil and cunning owner of Ruy Blaza is eager to take revenge on the queen. To do this, he gives the footman the name and all the titles of his relative - the dissolute Don Caesar de Bazan. The imaginary Don Caesar is to become the queen's lover. The proud queen - the lackey's mistress - such is the insidious plan. Everything is going according to plan. But the footman turns out to be the most noble, intelligent and worthy person at court. Among people to whom power belongs only by birthright, only a lackey turns out to be a man of a statesman's mind. At a meeting of the royal council, Ruy Blas makes a big speech.

He stigmatizes the court clique that ruined the country and brought the state to the brink of death. It is not possible to disgrace the queen, although she fell in love with Ruy Blas. He drinks the poison and dies, taking the secret of his name with him.

The play combines deep lyricism and poetry with sharp political satire. Democratic pathos and denunciation of the greed and insignificance of the ruling circles, in essence, proved that the people themselves can govern their country. In this play, for the first time, Hugo uses the romantic technique of mixing the tragic and the comic, introducing into the work the figure of the true Don Caesar, a ruined aristocrat, a merry fellow and a drunkard, a cynic and a breter.

In the theater "Ruy Blas" had an average success. The audience began to cool off towards romanticism. The bourgeois spectator, who was afraid of the revolution, associated with it the "frantic" romantic literature, transferred to it his sharply negative attitude towards any kind of rebelliousness, the manifestation of disobedience and self-will.

Hugo tried to create a new type of romantic drama - the epic tragedy The Burgraves (1843). However, the poetic merits of the play could not compensate for the lack of stage presence. Hugo wanted the youngsters who had fought for the Hernani in 1830 to attend the premiere of The Burgraves. One of the former associates of the poet answered him: "All the youth died." The drama failed, after which Hugo moved away from the theater.

Dumas

Hugo's closest associate in his struggle for romantic drama was Alexandre Dumas (Dumas père), author of the well-known trilogy about the Musketeers, the novel The Count of Monte Cristo, and many other classics of adventure literature. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Dumas was one of the most active participants in the romantic movement.

Dramaturgy occupies a significant place in the literary heritage of Dumas. He wrote sixty-six plays, most of which date from the 1930s and 1940s.

Literary and theatrical fame brought Dumas his first play - "Henry III and his court", staged in 1829 by the theater "Odeon". The success of Dumas' first drama was secured by a number of his subsequent plays: "Anthony" (1831), "Nelskaya Tower" (1832), "Kin, or Genius and Debauchery" (1836), etc.

A scene from the play "Anthony". A play by A. Dumas père

Dumas' plays are typical examples of romantic drama. He contrasted the prosaic everyday life of bourgeois modernity with the world of extraordinary heroes living in an atmosphere of violent passions, intense struggle, and acute dramatic situations. True, in the plays of Dumas there is not that strength and passion, democratic pathos and rebelliousness that distinguish the dramatic works of Hugo. But such dramas as "Henry III" and "Nelskaya Tower" showed the terrible side of the feudal-monarchical world, spoke about the crimes, cruelty and depravity of kings and the courtly-aristocratic circle. And plays from modern life ("Antony", "Kin") excited the democratic public with the depiction of the tragic fate of proud, courageous plebeian heroes who came into irreconcilable conflict with aristocratic society.

Dumas, like other romantic playwrights, used the techniques of melodrama, and this gave his plays a special entertaining and stage presence, although the abuse of melodrama brought him to the brink of bad taste when he fell into naturalism when depicting murders, executions, and torture.

In 1847, Dumas opened the "Historical Theater" created by him with the play "Queen Margot", on the stage of which the events of the national history of France were to be shown. And although the theater did not last long (it was closed in 1849), it took a prominent place in the history of the boulevard theaters in Paris.

Over the years, progressive tendencies are eroded from Dumas's dramaturgy. The successful fashion writer Dumas renounces his former romantic hobbies and stands up for the bourgeois order.

In October 1848, the play "Catilina" written by him together with A. Macke was staged on the stage of the "Historical Theater" owned by Dumas. This performance, which provoked a sharp protest from A. I. Herzen, was enthusiastically received by the bourgeois public. She saw in the play a historical lesson for the "rebels" and a justification for the recent brutal massacre of the participants in the June workers' uprising.

Vigny

One of the prominent representatives of romantic drama was Alfred de Vigny. He belonged to an old noble family whose members fought against the French Revolution and went to the guillotine for the ideas of royalism. But Vigny was not like those embittered aristocrats who believed in the possibility of restoring pre-revolutionary royal France and blindly hated everything new. A man of a new era, he placed freedom above all else, condemned despotism, but could not accept the contemporary bourgeois republic either. He was repelled from reality not only by the consciousness of the doom of his class, but to an even greater extent by the assertion of bourgeois orders and mores. Nor could he understand the anti-bourgeois meaning of the revolutionary uprisings of the people and of France in the first half of the 1930s. All this determines the pessimistic character of Vigny's romanticism. The motifs of "world sorrow" bring Vigny's poetry closer to Byron's. But the rebelliousness and life-affirming power of Byron's tragic poetry are alien to Vigny. His Byronism is the proud loneliness of man in the midst of a world alien to him, the consciousness of hopelessness, tragic doom.

Vigny, like most romantics, gravitated towards the theater and loved Shakespeare. Vigny's translations of Shakespeare played a large role in promoting the work of the great English playwright in France, although Vigny significantly romanticized his work. The significance of Vigny's Shakespearean translations is also great in establishing romanticism on the French stage. The staging of the tragedy "Othello" at the theater "Comedy Francaise" in 1829 foreshadowed those fights between romantics and classics that soon broke out at the performances of Hugo's drama "Hernani".

Vigny's best dramatic work was his romantic drama Chatterton (1835). When creating the play, Vigny used some facts from the biography of the 18th century English poet Chatterton, but the drama is not biographical.

The play depicts the tragic fate of a poet who wants to preserve the independence of poetry and personal freedom in a world that does not care about poetry or freedom. But the meaning of the play is wider and deeper. Vigny brilliantly foresaw the hostility of the new era to genuine humanity and creativity, the embodiment of which is poetry. The tragedy of Chatterton is the tragedy of a man in an inhuman world. The love plot of the drama is full of inner meaning, because Vigny's play is at the same time a tragedy of femininity and beauty given into the power of a wealthy boor (the doom of Kitty Bell, turned into a slave by her husband, a rich manufacturer, a rude, greedy person).

The anti-bourgeois pathos of the drama is reinforced by an episode, important in the ideological sense, in which the workers ask the manufacturer to give a place to their comrade, crippled by the machine at the factory. Like Byron, who defended the interests of the workers in the House of Lords, the aristocrat de Vigny here turns out to be the ideological ally of the labor movement of the 1930s.

The play reveals the originality of Vigny's romanticism. From the dramas of Hugo and Dumas, "Chatterton" differs in the absence of romantic fury and elation. The characters are alive, deeply developed psychologically. The denouement of the drama is tragic - Chatterton and Kitty die. This is prepared by the logic of their characters, their relationship with the world, and is not a melodramatic effect. The author himself emphasized the simplicity of the plot and the focus of the action in the inner world of the hero: "This is ... the story of a man who wrote a letter in the morning and awaits an answer until evening; the answer comes and kills him."

Musset

A special place in the history of French romantic theater and romantic drama belongs to Alfred de Musset. His name is inseparable from the names of the founders of romanticism. Musset's novel "Confessions of a Son of the Century" is one of the biggest events in the literary life of France. The novel creates the image of a modern young man belonging to the generation that entered life during the Restoration, when the events of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars had already died down, when "the powers of God and men were actually restored, but faith in them disappeared forever." Musset urged his generation to "get carried away by despair": "To mock fame, religion, love, everything in the world is a great comfort to those who do not know what to do."

This attitude to life is also expressed in Musset's dramaturgy. Along with a strong lyrical and dramatic jet, there is laughter here. But this is not a satire that castigates social vices - it is an evil and subtle irony directed against everything: against the everyday prose of our time, devoid of beauty, heroism, poetic fantasy, and against high, romantic impulses. Musset calls to laugh even at the cult of despair proclaimed by him, ironically remarking: "... it's so nice to feel unhappy, although in reality you only have emptiness and boredom."

Irony was not only the main principle of comedy, it also contained anti-romantic tendencies, which were especially clearly manifested in his dramaturgy of the 40s and 50s.

Musset's plays written in the 1930s (Venetian Night, Marianne's Whims, Fantasio) are brilliant examples of a new type of romantic comedy. Such, for example, is "Venetian Night" (1830). The plot of the play, as it were, foreshadows the bloody drama traditional for this style with violent love, jealousy and murder. The reveler and gambler Razetta is passionately in love with the beautiful Lauretta who reciprocated. The girl's guardian is going to marry her off to a German prince. Ardent Rasetta acts decisively. He sends a letter and a dagger to his beloved - she must kill the prince and escape Venice with Razetta. If Lauretta does not do this, he will kill himself. But suddenly the heroes begin to behave like ordinary people, inclined to be guided not by the dictates of passions, but rather by the voice of common sense. Lauretta, on reflection, decides to break with her violent lover and become the wife of the prince. Razetta also decides to leave the fiction about the murder of a rival or suicide. Together with a company of young rake and their girlfriends, he sails away in a gondola to have dinner and, towards the end, expresses the wish that all the extravagances of lovers end just as well.

The comedy Fantasio (1834) is permeated with sad irony. This is a lyrical play, the content of which is the author's thoughts, a bizarre play of thoughts and feelings, embodied in colorful, funny and sad, but always grotesque images. The hero of the comedy, bearing an expressive name, Fantasio, a melancholy rake and a witty philosopher, is alone among his sensible friends. However, in his opinion, everyone is lonely: each person is a world closed in himself, inaccessible to others. "In what loneliness these human bodies live!" he exclaims, looking at the cheerful celebratory crowd. At times he looks like a madman, but his madness is the highest wisdom that despises the vulgar worldly common sense. The image of Fantasio acquires complete completeness when he dresses in the costume of a royal jester, performs a chivalrous feat, saving the Bavarian princess Elsbet from the ridiculous Prince of Mantua who is wooing her. The transformation of Fantasio into a jester finally clarifies his essence, as if establishing his closeness to the wise jesters of Shakespeare and the brightly theatrical characters of Gozzi's comedies.

Often, comedies end with a tragic ending - "Whims of Marianne" (1833), "No joking with love" (1834).

The action in Musset's comedies takes place in different countries and cities, the time of action is not specified. On the whole, a special conditional theatrical world emerges in these plays, where underlined anachronisms draw attention to the modernity of the events and images depicted.

In the play "No Joking With Love" it is not the events that are important, but the psychological experiences and the spiritual world of the characters, which is revealed in all the complexity and inconsistency of spiritual impulses, emotions and reflections. The hero of the play, the young nobleman Perdikan, is destined to be Camille's bride. Without realizing it, young people love each other. But an obstacle to their happiness is Camilla's monastic upbringing, which inspired her with the idea of ​​the deceitfulness of men, the horror of marriage. Camilla refuses Perdican. Rejected and insulted, he, wanting to take revenge on the offender, begins to court his foster sister, the ingenuous peasant girl Razetta, and even promises to marry her. In the end, Camilla and Perdican confess their mutual love to each other. Witness to this explanation, Razetta, unable to bear the deception, dies. Shocked by what has happened, Camille and Perdican part forever.

This play, which has become, in essence, a psychological drama, is clothed by Musset in an original, truly innovative form of play. Musset brings a chorus of local peasants onto the stage. This person is auxiliary and at the same time conditional. The chorus knows everything, even what happens within the walls of the castle; the chorus enters into a casual conversation with other characters, commenting and evaluating their actions. This method of introducing the epic beginning into the drama enriched the dramaturgy with new expressive means. The lyrical, subjective, usually present in romantic images, here was "objectified" in the face of the choir. The heroes of the play, freed from the author's lyricism, seemed to acquire independence from the author's will, which over time will become inherent in realistic drama.

Musset's social pessimism is most pronounced in the drama Lorenzaccio (1834). This drama is the fruit of Musset's reflections on the tragic doom of attempts to change the course of history in a revolutionary way. Musset tried in "Lorenzaccio" to comprehend the experience of two revolutions and a number of revolutionary uprisings, which were especially rich in the political life of France in the early 30s. The plot is based on events from the medieval history of Florence. Lorenzo Medici (Lorenzaccio) hates despotism. Dreaming of the feat of Brutus, he plots to kill the tyrant Alexandra Medici and give freedom to the fatherland. This act of terrorism must be supported by the Republicans. Lorenzaccio kills the duke, but nothing changes. The Republicans are hesitant to speak out. Separate outbursts of popular discontent are suppressed by soldiers. Lorenzo, who has a bounty on his head, is killed by a treacherous stab in the back. The crown of Florence is presented to the new duke.

Tragedy speaks of the impossibility of a social revolution; paying tribute to the spiritual strength of the hero, condemns the romance of an individual revolutionary act. With no less force, tragedy condemns people who sympathize with the idea of ​​freedom, but do not dare to fight for it, who are not able to lead the people. Lorenzo's words sound directly addressed to his contemporaries: "If the republicans ... behave as they should, it will be easy for them to establish a republic, the most beautiful of all that has ever bloomed on earth. Let only the people take their side." But the people are deceived, passive, doomed...

The drama "Lorenzaccio" was written in a free manner, with complete disregard for the canons of classicism. The play is divided into thirty-nine short scenes-episodes, the alternation of which contributes to the rapid development of the action, the breadth of coverage of events, as well as the disclosure of various actions, facets of the characters of the main characters.

The drama has strong realistic, Shakespearean features, expressed in a broad and vivid depiction of the era, shown in its social contrasts, with the historically conditioned cruelty of morals. The characters of the heroes are also realistic, devoid of the straightforward schematism of the classicist drama. However, in the person of Lorenzaccio, the principle of deheroization is consistently carried out. The tragic fault of Lorenzaccio lies in the fact that, acting as an enemy of the world of violence and corruption, he himself becomes part of it. However, this "removal" of the lofty principle does not weaken the dramatic tension of the complex, inner life. The image of the protagonist betrays his closeness to the portrait created by Musset of a gloomy, disappointed and tragically desperate "son of the century".

After Lorenzaccio, Musset does not turn to big social topics. Since the second half of the 30s, he has been writing witty and elegant comedies from the life of secular society (Candlestick, 1835; Caprice, 1837). External action in comedies of this type is almost absent, and all interest lies in the word, moreover, the word appears here not in the theatrically emphasized forms of classicist or romantic drama, but in the form of conversations and dialogues that preserve the lively warmth of casual colloquial speech.

Musset has been developing since the mid-1940s a peculiar genre of proverbial comedies, which had a purely salon-aristocratic character. Musset's appeal to proverbial comedies spoke of a certain decline in the playwright's creative tone. But probably, for the romantic writer himself, this was a means of escaping the hated world of bourgeois mediocrity, the triumph of coarse egoistic passions hostile to beauty and poetry.

The stage fate of Musset's dramaturgy is very characteristic of the French theater of the period of the July Monarchy. Musset's early plays, the most significant in ideological terms and innovative in form, were not accepted by the French theater.

The theatricality of Musset's dramaturgy was discovered in Russia. In 1837, the comedy "Caprice" (under the title "Women's mind is better than any thoughts") was played in St. Petersburg. After the great success of the play in the performance of Russian theaters, it was staged at the French theater in St. Petersburg for the benefit of the actress Allan, who, returning to France, included it in the repertoire of the Comedie Francaise theater.

In general, the dramatic works of Musset, without taking a prominent place in the repertoire of the French theater of that time, had a great influence on the ideological and aesthetic image of the French theater of the 20th century.

Merimee

Realistic tendencies in the development of French drama are expressed in the works of Prosper Mérimée. Merimee's worldview was formed under the influence of the ideas of enlightenment philosophy. Post-revolutionary reality, especially the time of the Restoration, aroused in the writer a feeling of protest and condemnation. This brought Merimee closer to the romanticism of the democratic direction. But for romantics like Hugo and Dumas, the main thing was their romantic rebelliousness, their violent heroes, who embodied the freedom of the human spirit; in Mérimée's work, the romantic rebellion is replaced by an acutely critical and even satirical depiction of reality itself.

Merimee took part in the struggle of the romantics against classicism, releasing in 1825 a collection of plays called "The Theater of Clara Gasul". Calling a Spanish actress the author of the collection, Merimee explained by this the color of the plays written in the style of the comedies of the old Spanish theater. And the romantics, as you know, saw in the Spanish Renaissance theater the features of a romantic theater - folk, free, not recognizing any school rules and canons of classicism.

In the Clara Gasoul Theatre, Merimee showed a gallery of bright, sometimes bizarre, but always life-like images. Officers and soldiers, spies, nobles of various ranks and positions, monks, Jesuits, secular ladies and soldier's girlfriends, slaves, peasants - these are the heroes of comedies. One of the themes that permeate the collection is the denunciation of the morals of the clergy. In the sharply grotesque images of monks and priests, overwhelmed by carnal passions, one can feel the pen of a follower of Diderot and Voltaire.

The characters of Merimee's comedy are strong and passionate people, they are in exceptional positions and do extraordinary things. But to call them the heroes of a romantic drama is still impossible. In the "Theater of Clara Gasul" there is no cult of a strong individual, opposed to society. The heroes of these plays are devoid of romantic subjectivity and do not represent a direct expression of the thoughts and feelings of the author. In addition, romantic grief and disappointment are completely alien to them. If the romantic drama gave hyperbolic images of extraordinary heroes, then the numerous images of Mérimée's plays created a picture of social mores as a whole. With the romantic coloring of Merimee's characters, the irony that reduces the romantic mood of the heroes is most strongly felt in them.

So, in the comedy "African Love" Merimee laughs at the improbability of the "frantic" passions of his heroes, revealing the theatrical and sham character of romantic fury. One of the heroes of the drama, the Bedouin Zane, is in love with the slave of his friend Haji Numan, so in love that he cannot live without her. However, it turns out that this love is not the only one of the ardent African. Struck by the hand of Haji Numan, he, dying, reports: "... there is a black woman ... she is pregnant ... from me." Shocked by the death of his friend, Numan stabs an innocent slave with a dagger. But at that moment a servant appears and says: "... dinner is served, the performance is over." "Ah! - says Haji Numan, pleased with such a denouement, - then it's another matter." All the "killed" stand up, and the actress, who played the role of a slave, appeals to the public with a request to be indulgent towards the author.

To reduce the romantic pathos, Merimee willingly uses the technique of colliding a high, pathetic style of speech with the usual, colloquial and even vulgar language of the street.

The satirical features of the characters from the "Theater of Clara Gasul" are most fully expressed in the comedy "The Carriage of Holy Gifts", where the morals of the highest state administration and the "princes of the church" in the person of the Viceroy, his courtiers and the bishop, who all find themselves in in the hands of the nimble young actress Perichola.

In the Clara Gasoul Theatre, Merimee gave a brilliant example of creative freedom and refusal to follow the canons of the normative aesthetics of classicism. The cycle of plays united in this collection was, as it were, a creative laboratory of the writer, who was looking for and finding a new approach to portraying characters and passions, new means of expression and dramatic forms.

The appearance of Mérimée's play "Jacquerie" (1828), dedicated to the depiction of the anti-feudal uprising of French peasants - "Jacques" in the 14th century, is connected with thoughts about the national historical drama.

Mérimée's views on the laws of historical development and, in particular, on the significance of the people in history are close to French romantic historiography, and in particular to the historical concept of Thierry, who in his Letters on the History of France (1827) wrote: called a hero... you have to fall in love with an entire nation and follow its fate for centuries."

The play was created in an atmosphere of revolutionary upsurge that preceded the events of 1830. "Jacquerie" is an anti-feudal and anti-noble play that asserted the inevitability of an explosion of popular anger directed against an unjust and cruel social order.

In "Jacquerie" the innovative courage of Mérimée the playwright was manifested. The hero of the drama is the people. The tragedy of his fate, his struggle and defeat make up the plot-plot basis of the play, which includes many motives associated with the images and fates of people, participants in the peasant war, both allies and enemies of the "zhaks". Each of them has his own reason for joining or opposing the uprising. The fate of individual heroes of the "Jacquerie" creates a generalized image of the tragic fate of the people, speaks of the historical inevitability of its defeat. With merciless truthfulness, Merimee reproduces cruel and rude morals, predatory and stupid arrogance of knights, the betrayal of wealthy bourgeois townspeople, the limited and narrow horizons of the peasants - "Jacques".

The new idea of ​​tragedy, the main character of which is the people, made it impossible to preserve the old classicist form. There are about forty actors in the Jacquerie, not counting the participants in the mass scenes. The action takes place in many different places: in forests, on village squares, on battlefields, in knight's castles, monasteries, in the city hall, in the camp of rebels, etc. Focusing on Shakespeare, following the German "stormers" and romantics, Mérimée replaces the traditional five acts of classicist tragedy with thirty six scenes. The time of action also goes far beyond the "unity of time". All this destroyed the "narrow form" of classicist tragedy and demanded the freedom that the theoreticians of the new art spoke about. The artistic features of the "Jacquerie" fully meet the requirements for tragedy by Stendhal in his work "Racine and Shakespeare" (1825).

"Jacquerie" was not included in the repertoire of the French theater, but the very appearance of such a play testified to the creative power of realistic tendencies in the development of French romantic drama in the 1930s?

The significance of the "Jacquerie" is also great in the history of the drama of modern times, where, along with Pushkin's "Boris Godunov" (1825), it is a classic example of a folk tragedy. The experience of "Scenes from Feudal Times", as Mérimée called his play, was used by Pushkin in his work on an unfinished drama known as "Scenes from Knightly Times".

Great was Merimee's interest in Russia, its history, literature and language. Fascinated by the creation of a folk historical tragedy, the playwright devotes a number of historical works to the past of Russia, Ukraine - "Cossacks of Ukraine and their last chieftains", "Razin's Rebellion", etc. Merimee introduced the French to the best works of modern Russian literature, translated "The Queen of Spades", "Shot ", "Gypsy" and a number of poems by Pushkin, as well as Gogol's "Inspector" and stories by Turgenev. The Russian literary community highly appreciated the merits of the writer, electing him an honorary member of the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature.

Scribe

Social conditions in France gave rise not only to romantic dissatisfaction with reality. The country was rapidly moving along the path of capitalist development. The bourgeoisie became an ever more significant force, and in proportion to this, its conservatism intensified.

The sober and practical nature of the bourgeois was alien to romanticism with its rebellious impulses and violent passions. The civic pathos of classicism was no less alien to her. The heroic period of bourgeois revolutions is over. The bourgeois spectator wanted to see a playful vaudeville on the stage of the theater, a comedy not without satirical features, but not too evil. He was not averse to watching the historical drama, the content of which turned out to be adapted to the ideological level of a prosperous bourgeois man in the street.

The obligatory qualities of this dramaturgy were lightness and entertaining. The authors were required to master technical techniques, the ability to build a fascinating and spectacular plot, as well as knowledge of the psychology of the theatrical audience. Trying to entertain their viewers, the creators of this kind of "well-made plays" glorified the spirit and aspirations of their sensible, practical era, propagated the morality of the modern bourgeois, surrounding his prose image with a halo of virtue, praising his mind, energy and luck.

With the greatest completeness, the tastes of the bourgeois audience were embodied in the works of Augustin Eugene Scribe (1791 - 1861). Herzen splendidly defined the social image of Scribe and the social meaning of his dramaturgy, calling him a writer of the bourgeoisie: "... he loves her, he is loved by her, he adapted to her concepts and her tastes so that he himself lost all others; Scribe is a courtier, caresser , preacher, gaer, teacher, jester and poet of the bourgeoisie. The bourgeois are crying in the theater, touched by their own virtue, painted by Scribe, touched by the clerical heroism and the poetry of the counter "1. He was a prolific playwright. Possessing unconditional talent, diligence and guided by the principles of a "well-made play", Scribe wrote about four hundred dramatic works.

1 (Herzen A.I. Sobr. soch., in 30 vols. M., 1955, v. 5, p. 34.)

Among the most popular works of Scribe are "Bertrand and Raton" (1833), "Ladder of Glory" (1837), "Glass of Water" (1840), "Andrienne Lecouvreur" (1849).

Most of his plays were performed on the stage of the French theater with invariable success. Scribe's dramaturgy gained fame outside of France as well.

Despite their superficiality, Scribe's plays also have indisputable merits and are entertaining. His comedies are also successful with audiences who are extremely far from the bourgeois audience for which the playwright created his plays.

Starting with vaudeville in the 1930s, Scribe moves on to comedies, vaudeville with a complex, skillfully designed intrigue, with a number of subtly noticed social and everyday features of his time. The simple philosophy of his comedies was to strive for material prosperity, which, according to the author, contains the only happiness. Scribe's heroes are cheerful, enterprising bourgeois, who do not burden themselves with any thoughts about the meaning of life, about duty, about ethical and moral issues. They have no time to think, they must quickly and deftly arrange their affairs: marry profitably, make dizzying careers, plant and intercept letters, eavesdrop, track down; they do not have time for thoughts and experiences - they must act, enrich themselves.

One of Scribe's best plays was the famous comedy Glass of Water, or Causes and Effects (1840), which went around all world stages. It belongs to historical plays, but Scribe needs history only for names, dates, juicy details, and not for revealing historical patterns. The intrigue of the play is based on the struggle of two political opponents: Lord Bolingbroke and the Duchess of Marlborough, Queen Anne's favorite. Through the mouth of Bolingbroke, Scribe reveals his "philosophy" of history: "You probably, like most people, think that political catastrophes, revolutions, the fall of empires are caused by serious, deep and important reasons ... Mistake! Heroes, great people conquer states and guide them, but they themselves, these great people, are at the mercy of their passions, their whims, their vanity, that is, the smallest and most pitiful human ... feelings ... "

The bourgeois spectator, on whom Scribe counted, was infinitely flattered that he was no worse than famous heroes and monarchs. The transformation of the story into a brilliantly constructed stage anecdote suited this spectator quite well. A glass of water spilled on the dress of the English queen led to the conclusion of peace between England and France. Bolingbroke got the ministry because he was good at dancing the sarabande, but he lost it because of a cold. But all this absurdity is clothed in such a brilliant theatrical form, it is given such an infectiously joyful, impetuous rhythm of life that the play has not left the stage for many years.

balzac

The realistic aspirations of the French drama of the 1930s and 1940s manifested themselves with the greatest force and fullness in the dramaturgy of the greatest French novelist Honore de Balzac. The artist-thinker gave in his works an analysis of social life and the history of the mores of the era.

He sought to use the exact laws of science in his work. Based on the successes of the natural sciences, and in particular on the teachings of Saint-Hilaire on the unity of organisms, Balzac proceeded in depicting society from the fact that its development is subject to certain laws. Considering the thoughts and passions of people as a "social phenomenon", he argued, following the enlighteners, that a person by nature is "neither good nor evil," but "the desire for profit ... develops his bad inclinations." The task of the writer, Balzac believed, is to depict the action of these passions, conditioned by the social environment, the mores of society and the character of people.

The work of Balzac was an important stage in the development and theoretical understanding of the method of critical realism. The painstaking collection and study of life facts, their depiction "as they really are" did not turn in Balzac into a mundane, naturalistic life writing. He said that the writer, adhering to "careful reproduction", should "study the foundations or one common basis of these social phenomena, embrace the open meaning of a huge assemblage of types, passions and events ... "

Theater has always interested Balzac. Obviously, he, who believed that a writer should be an educator and mentor, was attracted by the accessibility and power of the impact of theatrical art on the public.

Balzac was critical of contemporary French theater and especially its repertoire. He condemned romantic drama and melodrama as plays that were far from the truth of Life. Balzac was no less negative about pseudo-realistic bourgeois drama. Balzac sought to introduce the principles of critical realism into the theater, that great truth of life that readers saw in his novels.

The path to creating a realistic play was difficult. In the early plays of Balzac, in his dramatic ideas, there is still a clear dependence on the romantic theater. Abandoning what he had planned, not being satisfied with what he had written, the writer in the 1920s and 1930s was looking for his own path in dramaturgy, he was still developing his own dramatic style, which began to emerge towards the end of this period, when the realistic principles of the art of Balzac the prose writer were most clearly defined.

From this time begins the most fruitful and mature period of Balzac's work as a playwright. During these years (1839 - 1848) Balzac wrote six plays: "The School of Marriage" (1839), "Vautrin" (1839), "Kinola's Hopes" (1841), "Pamela Giraud" (1843), "Businessman" (1844) , "Stepmother" (1848). Using the techniques and forms of various dramatic genres of artistic movements, Balzac gradually moved towards the creation of a realistic drama.

Having conceived several dramatic works, unlike the plays that filled the stage of the French theater at that time, Balzac wrote: “In the form of a trial balloon, I am writing a drama from petty-bourgeois life, without much fuss, as something insignificant, in order to see what kind of rumors the thing will cause completely” truthful ". However, this "insignificant" play was devoted to a very significant topic - the modern bourgeois family. "School of Marriage" is a love story of an aging businessman Gerard and a young girl Adrienne, an employee of his company, and a fierce struggle of respectable members of his family and relatives against this "criminal" passions These virtuous defenders of morality turn out to be limited and cruel people, the culprits of the tragic outcome of events.

Such a solution to the family theme sharply contrasted Balzac's drama with a "well-made play." "School of matrimony"; was not staged, but took a prominent place in the history of the French theater, representing the first attempt at a realistic reflection of the life of modern society in drama.

In the following plays, Balzac significantly increases the features of melodrama, which are generally characteristic of his dramaturgy.

In this regard, the play "Vautrin" is indicative. The hero of this melodrama is the fugitive convict Vautrin, whose image has developed in such works of Balzac as "Father Goriot", "The Brilliance and Poverty of the Courtesans", etc. He is wanted by the police, while he, meanwhile, rotates in the circles of the Parisian aristocracy. Knowing her innermost secrets and being connected with the underworld of Paris, Vautrin becomes a truly powerful figure. In the course of the action, Vautrin, changing his appearance, appears either in the role of a stockbroker, or under the guise of an exquisite aristocrat or envoy, and in the final act, which is decisive for the outcome of the intrigue, he even "plays like Napoleon." All these transformations naturally "romanticize" the image. However, in addition to the direct plot meaning, they also acquire a different meaning, as if speaking of the fragility of the lines that separate the bandit from the respectable ideas of the bourgeois-aristocratic society. Obviously, the hidden meaning of Vautrin's "transformations" was well understood by the actor Frederic Lemaitre; playing this role, he gave his hero an unexpected resemblance ... to King Louis Philippe. This was one of the reasons why the drama, which was a great success with the audience of the theater "Port-Saint-Martin" (1840), was banned the day after the premiere of the play.

One of the best works of Balzac the playwright is the comedy "Businessman". This is a truthful and vivid satirical depiction of his contemporary mores. All the heroes of the play are seized with a thirst for enrichment and use any means to achieve this goal; and the question whether a man is a swindler and a criminal, or a respected businessman, is decided by the success or failure of his swindle.

Merchants and stockbrokers of various sizes and abilities, bankrupt society dandies, modest young people who rely on rich brides, and even servants bribed by their masters and in turn trading in their secrets take part in a fierce struggle.

The main face of the play is the businessman Mercade. This is a man of penetrating mind, strong will and great human charm. All this helps him extricate himself from seemingly hopeless situations. People who know his price well, creditors who are ready to put him in prison, succumb to his will and, convinced by a bold flight of thought, accuracy of calculations, are ready not only to believe him, but even to take part in his adventures. Merkade's strength lies in his lack of any illusions. He knows that in his modern world there are no connections between people, except for participation in the competitive struggle for profit. "Now ... feelings have been abolished, they have been supplanted by money," the businessman declares, "there remains only self-interest, for there is no longer a family, there are only individuals." In a society where human ties fall apart, the concept of honor and even honesty does not make any sense. Showing a five-franc coin, Mercada exclaims: "Here it is, the current honor! Be able to convince the buyer that your lime is sugar, and if you manage to get rich at the same time ... you will become a deputy, a peer of France, a minister."

The realism of Balzac manifested itself in comedy in a truthful depiction of social mores, in a sharp analysis of the modern society of "businessmen" as a certain social organism. When creating "Businessman", Balzac turned to the traditions of French comedy of the 17th - 18th centuries. Hence the generalization of images, the absence of everyday life, the harmony and logic of the development of the action and the well-known theatrical conventionality inherent in the very atmosphere in which the characters of the play act rather than live. The play is distinguished by a rather dry rationality and the absence in the images of those psychological shades and individual traits that turn a theatrical character into a lively and inexhaustibly complex face.

Conceived back in 1838, the comedy "Businessman" was completed only six years later. During the life of the author, the play was not performed. Balzac wanted Frederic Lemaitre to play the role of Mercade, but the Porte Saint-Martin Theater demanded significant changes in the text of the play from the author, which Balzac did not agree to.

The dramatic work of Balzac is completed by the drama "The Stepmother", in which he came close to the task of creating a "truthful play". The author defined the nature of the play, calling it a "family drama". Analyzing family relationships, Balzac studied public mores. And this gave great social meaning to the "family drama", which seemed to be far from any social problems.

Behind the external well-being and peaceful calm of a prosperous bourgeois family, a picture of the struggle of passions, political convictions is gradually revealed, a drama of love, jealousy, hatred, family tyranny and paternal concern for the happiness of children is revealed.

The action of the play takes place in 1829 in the house of a wealthy manufacturer, the former general of the Napoleonic army, Comte de Grandchamp. The main characters of the play are the wife of Count Gertrude, his daughter from his first marriage, Pauline, and the ruined Count Ferdinand de Markandal, who is now the manager of the general's factory. Polina and Ferdinand love each other. But they face insurmountable obstacles. The fact is that Ferdinand and Polina are modern Romeo and Juliet. General Grandshan, in his political convictions, is a militant Bonapartist who passionately hates everyone who began to serve the Bourbons. And that is exactly what Ferdinand's father did. Ferdinand himself lives under a false name and knows that the general will never give his daughter to the son of a "traitor".

Prevents the love of Ferdinand and Pauline and her stepmother Gertrude. Even before her marriage, she was Ferdinand's mistress. When he went bankrupt, then, in order to save him from poverty, Gertrude married a wealthy general, hoping that he would soon die and she, rich and free, would return to Ferdinand. Fighting for her love, Gertrude leads a cruel intrigue that should separate the lovers.

The image of the stepmother takes on the features of a melodramatic villainess in the play, and with it the whole drama eventually takes on the same character. Motifs of melodramatic and romantic theater burst into the atmosphere of psychological drama: the heroine being put to sleep with the help of opium, the letters being stolen, the threat of revealing the hero's secret, and, finally, the suicide of the virtuous girl and her lover.

However, true to his rule of finding a “common basis” for phenomena and revealing the hidden meaning of passions and events, Balzac does this in his drama as well. At the heart of all the tragic events of "Stepmother" are the phenomena of social life - the ruin of an aristocrat, a marriage of convenience common to the bourgeois world, and the enmity of political opponents.

You can understand the significance of this play in the development of realistic drama by familiarizing yourself with the author's intention of "Stepmother". Balzac said: “This is not about crude melodrama ... No, I dream of the drama of the salon, where everything is cold, calm, kindly. Men play whist complacently by the light of candles raised above soft green lampshades. above the embroidery. They drink patriarchal tea. In a word, everything heralds order and harmony. But there, inside, passions are agitated, the drama smolders, so that later it bursts into flames of fire. That's what I want to show. "

Balzac was not able to fully embody this idea and free himself from the attributes of "rough melodrama", but he was able to brilliantly foresee the contours of the drama of the future. Balzac's idea of ​​revealing the "terrible", that is, the tragic in everyday life, was embodied only in the dramaturgy of the late 19th century.

The Stepmother was staged at the Historical Theater in 1848. Of all the dramatic works of Balzac, she was the most successful with the public.

More than any of his contemporary playwrights, Balzac did more to create a new type of realistic social drama capable of revealing the full complexity of the real contradictions of a mature bourgeois society. However, in his dramatic work, he could not rise to that comprehensive coverage of life phenomena, which is so characteristic of his best realistic novels. Even in the most successful plays, Balzac's realistic strength was to a certain extent weakened and reduced. The reason for this is the general lag of the French dramaturgy of the middle of the 19th century behind the novel, in the influence of the commercial bourgeois theater.

But for all that, Balzac occupies an honorable place among the fighters for the realistic theater; France.

France lives a tense political life after the fall of Napoleon. The 19th century was marked by new revolutionary outbreaks. The restoration of royal power (the Bourbon dynasty) in 1815 did not meet the interests of the country. This power was supported by the landed aristocracy and the Catholic Church. The social discontent of the vast majority of the country's population, protests against this government resulted in the July Revolution of 1830. Social protests, criticism of the existing order, overt or covert, were expressed in various forms: in newspaper articles, in literary criticism and, of course, in the theater.

During the 20s. in France, romanticism is emerging as the leading artistic trend: the theory of romantic literature and romantic drama is being developed.

The theorists of romanticism enter into a decisive struggle with classicism, which has completely lost touch with advanced social thought and has become the official style of the Bourbon monarchy. Now he was associated with the reactionary ideology of the Bourbons and was perceived as routine, inert, as an obstacle to the development of new trends in art. The romantics rebelled against him.

In the romanticism of this time, the features of realism with its critical coloring are also noticeable.

The major theorists of romanticism were the "pure" romanticist V. Hugo and the realist Stendhal. The theoretical questions of romanticism are developed in polemics with the classicists: Hugo does this in the "Preface" to his drama "Cromwell", and Stendhal in the article "Racine and Shakespeare".

Prominent writers of this time - Mérimée and Balzac - act as realists, but their realism is painted in romantic tones. This is especially evident in their plays.

Romantic drama penetrated the stage with difficulty. Classicism reigned in theaters. But the romantic drama had an ally in the face melodrama. Melodrama as a dramatic genre has established itself in the repertoire of boulevard theaters. She had a great influence on the tastes of the public, on modern drama and the performing arts in general.

Melodrama is a direct product of romanticism. Her heroes are people rejected by society and the law, suffering from injustice. In the plots of melodramas there is a sharp contrasting clash of good and evil. And this conflict, for the sake of the public, has always been resolved in favor of good or the punishment of vice. The most popular melodramas are "Victor, or Child of the Forest" by Pixerekour, "The Thieving Magpie" by Kenye, "Thirty Years, or the Life of a Gambler" by Ducange. The latter entered the repertoire of the great tragic actors of the 19th century. Its plot is as follows: the hero at the beginning of the play is an ardent young man who is fond of a card game, seeing in it the illusion of a struggle and victory over Rock. But, falling under the hypnotic power of excitement, he loses everything, becomes a beggar. Overwhelmed by the persistent thought of cards and winnings, he commits a crime and eventually dies, almost killing his own son.

All this is accompanied by stage effects expressing horror. But, despite this, the melodrama reveals a serious and significant theme of the condemnation of modern society, where youthful aspirations, heroic impulses turn into evil, selfish passions.

After the revolution of 1830, the Bourbon monarchy was replaced by the bourgeois monarchy of Louis Philippe. Revolutionary mood and revolutionary speeches did not stop.

Romanticism 30-40s. continued to feed on the mood of public discontent and acquired a pronounced political orientation: he denounced the injustice of the monarchical system and defended human rights. It was this time (that is, the 30-40s of the XIX century) that was the heyday of the romantic theater. Hugo, Dumas père, de Vigny, de Musset are playwrights of romanticism. The romantic school of acting was represented by Bocage, Dorval, Lemaitre.

Victor Hugo(1802-1885) was born into the family of a general of the Napoleonic army, his mother was from a wealthy bourgeois family; monarchical views in the family are the norm.

Hugo's early literary experiences revealed him as a monarchist and classicist. But the political atmosphere of the 20s. seriously influenced him, he becomes a member of the romantic movement, and then - the leader of progressive romanticism.

Hatred of social injustice, protection of the oppressed and disadvantaged, condemnation of violence, preaching of humanism - all these ideas fed his novels, dramaturgy, journalism, political pamphlets.

The beginning of his drama is the drama "Cromwell" (1827). In the Preface to it, he stated aesthetic creed of romanticism. The main idea here is a rebellion against classicism and its aesthetic laws. Protesting against "theories", "poetics", "models", he proclaims the freedom of the artist's creativity. He emphasizes that “drama is a mirror in which nature is reflected. But if this is an ordinary mirror, with a flat and smooth surface, it will give a dull and flat reflection, true, but colorless ... the drama should be a concentrating mirror that turns flicker into light, and light into flame ”(V. Hugo. Selected Dramas T.1.-L., 1937, pp. 37.41).

Hugo gives key milestones theories of the romantic grotesque, the development and embodiment of which - in all his work.

"The grotesque is one of the beauties of drama." It is through the grotesque, which he understands not only as an exaggeration, but as a combination, a combination of opposite and, as it were, mutually exclusive sides of reality, that the highest fullness of disclosure of this reality is achieved. Through the combination of high and low, tragic and funny, beautiful and ugly, we comprehend the diversity of life.

For Hugo, Shakespeare was a model of an artist who ingeniously used the grotesque in art. He sees the grotesque in Shakespeare everywhere. Shakespeare “introduces into tradition now laughter, now horror. He arranges meetings between the apothecary and Romeo, the three witches with Macbeth, the grave-diggers with Hamlet.

Hugo's rebelliousness also consisted in the fact that, without directly touching on politics, he opposes classicism, calling it the old literary regime: "At present, there is a literary old regime as a political old regime". He thus correlates classicism with the monarchy.

Hugo wrote 7 romantic dramas: "Cromwell"(1827), "Marion Delorme"(1829), "Ernani"(1830), "King is having fun"(1832), "Mary Tudor"(1833) "Ruy Blas"(1838). But neither "Cromwell" nor "Marion Delorme" could get on the stage: "Cromwell" - as a "daringly truthful drama", and "Marion Delorme" - as a drama in which the tragic conflict of the lofty and poetic love of a rootless youth and a courtesan is expressed with the inhuman laws of royalty; in it, Hugo portrayed the king negatively.

The first drama to see the scene was Ernani (1830). In it, Hugo depicts medieval Spain; the entire ideological-emotional system affirms freedom of feelings, the right of a person to defend honor. Heroes manifest themselves in deeds, and in sacrificial love, and in noble generosity, and in the cruelty of revenge. In a word, this is a typical romantic drama with exceptional situations, exceptional passions, melodramatic events. Rebellion is expressed in the image of the robber Ernani, a romantic avenger. The tragic conflict is predetermined by the clash of sublime and bright love with the gloomy world of feudal-knightly morality; social overtones are added by Ernani's clash with the king.

The drama "Ernani" was staged on the stage of "Comédie Française". This was a major victory for romanticism.

After the revolution of 1830, romanticism became the leading theatrical trend. In 1831, "Marion Delorme" appears on the scene. Then - one after another: "The King Amuses" (1832), "Mary Tudor" (1833), "Ruy Blas" (1838). All of them were a great success due to the entertaining plots, bright melodramatic effects. But the main reason for the popularity is in the socio-political orientation, democratic character.

Democratic pathos is especially pronounced in the drama Ruy Blas. The action takes place in Spain at the end of the 17th century. But this play, like others written on historical material, is not a historical drama. It is based on poetic fiction. Ruy Blas is a romantic hero, full of high intentions and noble impulses. He dreamed of the good of his country and believed in his high appointment. But he failed to achieve anything in life and is forced to become a lackey of a rich and noble nobleman, close to the royal court. Don Sallust de Bazan (this is the name of this nobleman), malicious and cunning, wants to take revenge on the queen who rejected his love. To do this, he gives Ruy Blas the name and all the titles of his relative - the dissolute Don Cesar de Bazan. Under this name, Ruy Blas is to become the Queen's lover. This is the insidious plan of Sallust: the proud queen is the mistress of the footman. Everything is going according to plan. But Ruy Blas turns out to be the most noble, intelligent and worthy person at court. Among all the nobles to whom power belongs by birthright, only the lackey turns out to be a man of the statesman's mind. At a meeting of the royal council, Ruy Blas delivers a long speech in which he accuses the court clique that ruined the country and brought the state to the brink of death. This is the first loss of Sallust, and the second is that he failed to disgrace the queen, although she fell in love with Ruy Blas. Ruy Blas drinks the poison, taking away the secret of his name.

In this play, Hugo for the first time uses the techniques of mixing the tragic and the comic; this is mainly expressed in the grotesque figure of the true Don Cesar, a ruined aristocrat, drunkard, cynic, breter.

"Ruy Blas" in the theater was an average success. The audience began to cool off towards romanticism.

Hugo tried to create a new type of romantic drama - the epic tragedy The Burgraves (1843). But it was unstaged and not only did not have success, but failed. After that, Hugo moved away from the theater.

Alexandr Duma(Dumas-father) (1802-1870) was Hugo's closest associate. In the 20-30s. was an active member of the Romantic movement. In addition to novels (The Three Musketeers, The Count of Monte Cristo, Queen Margo, etc.), he wrote 66 plays in the 1930s and 1940s. Theatrical fame brought his first play "Henry III and his court." It was staged at the Odeon Theater in 1829. The following performances consolidated this success: Anthony (1831), Nelskaya Tower (1832), Keane, or Genius and Debauchery (1836) and others. All of them - also romantic dramas, but they don’t have that spirit of rebellion like Hugo’s.

Dumas also used the techniques of melodrama, which gave his plays a special entertaining and stage presence, but sometimes the abuse of melodrama brought him to the brink of bad taste (the depiction of horrors - murders, executions, torture was on the verge of naturalism).

In 1847, Dumas opened his Historical Theater with the play “Queen Margot”, on the stage of which plays were to be shown showing scenes of the national history of France. He took a prominent place in the history of the boulevard theaters of Paris. But his Historical Theater lasted only 2 years and was closed in 1849.

The successful fashion writer Dumas moves away from romanticism, renounces it and stands up for the bourgeois order.

Prosper Merimee(1803-1870). Realistic tendencies are expressed in his work. His outlook was formed under the influence of enlightenment philosophy.

In his work, the romantic rebellion against reality is replaced by a sharply critical and even satirical depiction of reality itself.

Merimee took part in the struggle against classicism, releasing in 1825 a collection of plays called "Theatre of Clara Gasul". Clara Gasul - Spanish actress; With this name Merime explained the color of the plays written in the manner of the comedies of the old Spanish theater. And the romantics, as you know, saw in the Spanish Renaissance theater the features of a romantic theater - folk, free, not knowing the canons of classicism.

At the Clara Gasoul Theatre, Mérimée gave a brilliant example of the principle of freedom of creativity and refusal to follow the canons of the normative aesthetics of classicism. The cycle of plays in this collection was, as it were, a creative laboratory for the playwright, who found a new approach to depicting characters and passions, new means of expression and dramatic forms.

This collection shows a gallery of bright, life-like, although sometimes bizarre images (the characters are people of all classes). One of the themes is the denunciation of the clergy. And although the heroes of Merimee's comedies are strong, passionate people who are in an exceptional position, doing extraordinary things, they are still not romantic heroes. Because in general they create a picture of social mores (which is closer to realism).

The romantic coloring of the situation acts as irony (or even a parody of a romantic drama). Example: "African Love" - ​​in this play, Merimee laughs at the improbability of the "frantic" passions of the heroes of the play, revealing their theatrical and sham character. One of the heroes of the drama, the Bedouin Zein, is in love with the slave of his friend Haji Numan, so in love that he cannot live without her. But it turns out that this is not his only love. Haji Numan kills him, and he, dying, manages to say that there is a black woman who is expecting a child from him. This shocks Haji Numan, and he kills an innocent slave. At that moment, a servant appears and announces that "dinner is served, the show is over." All the "killed" stand up.

To reduce romantic pathos, Merimee often uses the technique of colliding a high, pathetic style of speech with ordinary, colloquial and even vulgar street language.

The Carriage of the Sacred Gifts (a satirical comedy from the Clara Gasul Theatre) ridicules the mores of the highest state administration and the "princes of the church" (the viceroy, his court and the bishop). All of them end up in the hands of the nimble young actress Perichola.

Mérimée dreamed of creating a national historical drama. This is how the play "Jacquerie" (1828), dedicated to the peasant uprising of the XIV century, appeared. The play was created in the atmosphere of a revolutionary upsurge before the events of 1830. Merimee's innovation was manifested in this play: the hero of the drama is the people. The tragedy of his fate, his struggle and defeat form the plot basis of the play. And here he argues with the romantics, who show not the truth of life, but the truth of poetry. He is faithful to the truth of life, showing rude and cruel customs, the betrayal of wealthy bourgeois townspeople, the limited and narrow horizons of the peasants and the inevitability of their defeat. (Mérimée defined the play as “scenes from feudal times.” Pushkin has an unfinished drama “Scenes from chivalrous times.” And “Boris Godunov” (1825) is also a folk historical drama, like Mérimée’s “Jacquerie”).

But the Jacquerie was not included in the repertoire of theaters.

Alfred de Vigny(1797-1863) - also one of the prominent representatives of the romantic drama. He came from an old noble family. But he is a man of a new era: he put freedom above all, condemned the despotism of kings and Napoleon. At the same time, he could not accept a bourgeois republic, did not understand the meaning of the revolutionary uprisings of the 1930s, although he was aware of the historical doom of the nobility. Hence the pessimistic character of his romanticism. It is characterized by the motives of "world sorrow", the proud loneliness of a person among a world alien to him, the consciousness of hopelessness and tragic doom.

His best work is a romantic drama "Chutterton" (1835).

Chatterton, 18th century English poet But this is not a biographical play. De Vigny depicts the tragic fate of the poet who wants to preserve the independence of poetry, freedom of creativity, personal freedom. But this world has nothing to do with poetry or freedom. Washed away the play, however, wider and deeper. The playwright foresaw the hostility of the new era to freedom and humanity. The world is inhuman, and in it man is tragically alone. The love plot of the drama is full of inner meaning, because de Vigny's play is also a tragedy of femininity and beauty given into the power of a wealthy boor.

The anti-bourgeois pathos of the drama is reinforced by an episode, important in the ideological sense, in which the workers ask the manufacturer to give a place to their comrade, crippled by a machine in his factory. Like Byron, who defended the interests of the workers in the House of Lords, the aristocrat de Vigny is here an ally of the labor movement of the 1930s.

The peculiarity of de Vigny's romanticism is in the absence of the fury and elation characteristic of Hugo and Dumas. The characters are lively, typical and well psychologically developed. The finale of the drama - the death of Chatterton and Kitty - is prepared by the logic of their characters, their relationship with the world and is not a melodramatic effect.

The drama was first performed in 1835 and was a great success.

Alfred de Musset(1810-1857) occupies a special place in the history of romantic theater and romantic drama. He is closely associated with the founders of romanticism. His romance "Confessions of a Son of the Century"- a major event in the literary life of France. The hero of the novel enters life when the events of the Great French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars have died down, when the authorities "are restored, but faith in them has disappeared forever." Musset was alien to the pathos of the struggle for the ideas of freedom and humanism. He urged his generation to "get carried away with despair": "To mock fame, religion, love, everything in the world is a great comfort to those who don't know what to do."

This attitude to life is expressed in his dramaturgy. Along with a strong lyrical and dramatic situation, there is laughter here. But this is not satire, this is an evil and subtle irony directed against everything: against the everyday prose of life without beauty, against heroism, against high romantic impulses. He even sneers at what he himself proclaimed - over the cult of despair: "it's so nice to feel unhappy, although in reality you only have emptiness and boredom."

Irony is not only the principle of the romantic comedy he created, it also contained anti-romantic tendencies, especially in the 40s and 50s.

In the 30s. created "Venetian Night", "Whims of Marianna", "Fantasy". These are brilliant examples of a new type of romantic comedy. For example, "Venetian night"(1830): Reveler and gambler Rosetta passionately loves Lauretta. She reciprocates him. But her guardian gives her in marriage to a wealthy German prince. The ardent Razetta sends a letter and a dagger to his beloved - she must kill the prince and, together with Razetta, escape from Venice. Otherwise, he will kill himself. But suddenly common sense wins: Lauretta, after thinking about how best to act, decides to break with her frantic and, moreover, ruined lover and become the wife of a rich prince. Razetta also argues sensibly, he also discards fictions about murder and suicide and, together with a company of young rake, sails away in a gondola to have dinner. Towards the end, he expresses the wish that all the folly ends just as well.

Comedy "Fantasy"(1834) is imbued with sad irony.

Sometimes comedies end in tragic endings. - "Whims of Marianne", "No joking with love" (1834).

Musset's social pessimism is most pronounced in the drama "Lorenzaccio"(1834). This is a drama expressing reflections on the tragic doom of attempts to change the course of history in a revolutionary way. Musset is trying to comprehend the experience of two revolutions and a number of revolutionary uprisings, which are rich in the political life of France in the early 30s.

The plot is based on the events of medieval Florence. Lorenzo Medici (Lorenzaccio) hates despotism. Dreaming of the feat of Brutus, he plots to kill the tyrant Alexandro Medici and give freedom to the fatherland. This act of terrorism must be supported by the Republicans. Lorenzaccio kills the duke, but nothing changes. The Republicans are hesitant to speak out. And individual outbreaks of popular discontent were suppressed by soldiers. There is a bounty on Lorenzaccio's head. And they kill him, treacherously stabbing him in the back. The corpse of Lorenzaccio is thrown into the lagoon (i.e. not buried). The crown of Florence is presented to the new duke.

The drama uses the techniques of romanticism, it is written in a free manner with complete disregard for the canons of classicism. Its 39 short scenes-episodes alternate in such a way as to give the action a swift, wide coverage of events. The main characters are well-drawn.

The main idea is about the impossibility of social revolution. The author pays tribute to the spiritual strength of the hero, but condemns the romanticism of an individual revolutionary act. People who sympathize with the idea of ​​freedom, but do not dare to join the struggle, are also condemned. In the drama, the influence of Shakespeare is noticeable - a broad depiction of the era in its social contrasts, the cruelty of morals.

After Lorenzaccio, Musset does not turn to big social topics. From the second half of the 30s. he writes elegant and witty comedies from the life of secular society - "Candlestick" (1835), "Caprice"(1837). In the mid 40s. Musset develops a special genre of proverbial comedies, but these are parlor-aristocratic comedies.

The stage fate of Musset's drama is very characteristic of the French theater of the period of the July Monarchy: Musset's early plays, the most significant in ideological terms and innovative in form, were not accepted by the French theater. The staging of Musset's plays was discovered in Russia. In 1837, the comedy "Caprice" was staged in St. Petersburg (under the title "A woman's mind is better than any thoughts"). The great success of this play forced the French Theater in St. Petersburg to turn to it: it was staged for the benefit of the actress Allan, who, returning to France, included it in the repertoire of the Comédie Française.

But in general, Musset's plays did not occupy a prominent place in the repertoire of the French theater and did not have a noticeable influence on its ideological and aesthetic appearance. They remained in history as an example of innovative drama that did not find a full-fledged stage embodiment in the theater of its time.

Augustin Eugene Scribe(1791-1864) is a writer of the bourgeoisie. “... he loves her, he is loved by her, he adapted to her concepts and her tastes so that he himself lost all others; Scribe is a courtier, caresser, preacher, gaer, teacher, jester and poet of the bourgeoisie. The bourgeois weep in the theatre, touched by their own virtue, painted by Scribe, touched by the heroism of the clerk and the poetry of the counter” (Herzen).

He was a prolific playwright, possessed of talent, industriousness, well understood the "rules" of a "well-made play." He wrote about 400 plays. Most Popular "Bertrand and Raton" (1833), "Ladder of Glory" (1837), "Glass of water" (1840), "Adrienne Lecouvrere" (1849).

B about Most of the plays with unflagging success went on the stage of the French theater, won fame outside of France.

Scribe's plays are superficial in content, but they have an optimistic spirit and amusement. They were created for the bourgeois public, but other classes also had success. He started out in vaudeville in the 1930s. writes vaudeville comedies with a complex, skillfully designed intrigue and a number of subtly noticed social and everyday features of his time.

Their simple philosophy boiled down to the fact that you need to strive for material success and prosperity, because only happiness lies in it.

His heroes are cheerful enterprising bourgeois, not burdened with any thoughts about the meaning of life, about duty, about ethical and moral issues. All this is empty for them, they have no time, they need to deftly arrange their affairs: it is profitable to marry, build a dizzying career, and there are any means for this - to eavesdrop, track down, plant a letter or intercept a letter. All this is the norm of behavior and there is no time to worry.

His best play is "Glass of Water or Cause and Effect"(1840), which went around the stages of all world theaters. It belongs to historical plays, but history is only an excuse: it gives the author historical names, dates, juicy details, and nothing more. The author does not attempt to reveal or trace historical patterns. The intrigue is built on the struggle of two political opponents: Lord Bolingbroke and the Duchess of Marlborough, Queen Anne's favorite. The whole “philosophy of history” of Scribe is as follows: “... political catastrophes, revolutions, the fall of empires are not at all caused by deep and important reasons; kings, leaders, generals are themselves at the mercy of their passions, whims, their vanity, i.e. the smallest and most miserable human feelings.

The bourgeois spectator, on whom Scribe counted, was infinitely flattered that he was no worse than famous heroes and monarchs. Scribe thus turned the story into a brilliantly constructed stage anecdote. A glass of water spilled on the dress of the English queen led to the conclusion of peace between England and France. Bolingbroke got the ministry because he was good at dancing the sarabande, but he lost it because of a cold. But all this absurdity is clothed in a brilliant theatrical form, it is given an infectious rhythm, and the play has not left the stage for more than 100 years.

Felix Pia(1810-1889) - creator of social melodrama. According to his views, he is a Republican, a member of the Paris Commune. His work had an impact on theatrical life in the period 1830-1848. (growth of revolutionary sentiments).

Historical anti-monarchist drama "ango" staged at the Ambigu-Comic Theater in 1835, was directed against King Francis I, whose name was associated with the legend of the national hero - the king-knight, enlightener and humanist. The drama exposes this "most charming monarch".

The social melodrama "The Parisian rag-picker" is Pia's most significant work. It was staged at the theater "Porte Saint-Martin" in 1847 and was a great and lasting success. Herzen highly appreciated this drama, which expresses social protest against the high society of the July Monarchy. The main storyline is the story of the rise and fall of the banker Hoffmann. In the prologue of the play, Pierre Garus, ruined and unwilling to work, commits a robbery and murder. In the first act, the murderer and robber is a respected person. Hiding his name and past, he skillfully took advantage of the loot and is now a prominent banker - Baron Hoffman. But the rag-picker father Jean, an honest poor man, a champion of justice, turned out to be an accidental witness to the crime that marked the beginning of the career of Harus-Hoffmann. At the end of the play, Hoffmann is exposed and punished. And although the finale did not correspond to the truth of life, it expressed the optimism inherent in melodrama - faith in the law of the victory of good.

Honore da Balzac(1799-1850). In his work, the realistic aspirations of the French drama of the 30s and 40s were manifested with the greatest force and completeness.

Balzac's work is the most important stage in the development and theoretical understanding of the method of critical realism.

Balzac painstakingly studied the facts of life, the basis of social phenomena, analyzed them in order to capture their general meaning and give a picture of "types, passions and events."

He was convinced that the writer should be an educator and mentor. And the means for this is the theater, its accessibility and the power of influence on the viewer.

Balzac was critical of contemporary theater. He denounced romantic drama and melodrama as plays far removed from life. He sought to bring into the theater the principles of critical realism, the truth of life. But the path to creating a true play was difficult. In his early plays, there is a dependence on the romantic theater. In the 40s. begins the most fruitful and mature period of his work.

He wrote 6 plays: School of Marriage (1839), Vautrin (1839), Hopes of Kinola (1841), Pamela Giraud (1843), Dealer (1844), Stepmother (1848).

Comedy "Businessman"- this is a truthful and vivid satirical image of contemporary morals. All comedy heroes are thirsty for enrichment, and all means are good for this. Whether a person is a swindler and a criminal or a respected businessman is decided by the success or failure of his scam.

The main character is a businessman Mercade. He is smart, insightful, strong-willed and very charming. Therefore, it is easy to get out of difficult and even hopeless situations. Creditors know his price and are ready to put him in jail, but succumb to his will, charm, and are already ready not only to believe him, but also to help in his adventures. He perfectly understands that between people there are no ties of friendship, nobility, but only a competitive struggle for profit. Everything is for sale!

Balzac's realism manifested itself in a truthful depiction of social mores, in a merciless analysis of the modern society of businessmen as a social phenomenon.

The most significant in ideological and artistic terms is the drama of Balzac "Stepmother", in which he came close to the task of creating a "truthful" play. He called the play a "family drama" because he deeply analyzed family relationships; and this gave the drama a great social meaning.

Behind the external well-being and peaceful tranquility of a prosperous bourgeois family, a picture of the struggle of passions, political convictions, a drama of jealousy, love, hatred, family tyranny and paternal concern for the happiness of children is gradually revealed.

The action of the play takes place in the house of a wealthy manufacturer, the former Napoleonic general Comte de Grandchamp. The main characters are the wife of Count Gertrude, his daughter from his first marriage, Polina, and the ruined Count Ferdinand de Markandal, who is now the manager of the general's factory. Polina and Ferdinand love each other, but there are insurmountable obstacles in the way of their love. The general, in his political convictions, is an ardent Bonapartist, he hates everyone who began to serve the Bourbons. And Ferdinand's father did just that. Ferdinand lives under a false name, because he knows that the general will never give his daughter to the son of a "traitor". The second obstacle is that Gertrude was Ferdinand's mistress even before her marriage. When she married the general, she hoped that he would be old and soon die, and that she, rich and free, would return to Ferdinand. She fights for her love, leads a cruel intrigue to separate the lovers. This psychological drama contains both melodramatic and romantic elements: the theft of letters, the threat of revealing the secret of the hero, the suicide of lovers. But the main thing is that the basis of all the tragic events of "Stepmother" are the phenomena of social reality - the ruin of an aristocrat, the enmity of political opponents, a marriage of convenience.

Balzac wanted to reveal the tragic in everyday life; this was embodied in the dramaturgy of the late 19th century.

“The Stepmother was staged at the Historical Theater in 1848. Of all Balzac's plays, she was the most successful with the public.

State educational institution

higher professional education

STATE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE INSTITUTE

named after A. S. PUSHKIN

FACULTY OF PHILOLOGY

Department of World Literature

COURSE WORK ON THE HISTORY OF FOREIGN

LITERATUREXIX CENTURIES

Done: studentIIIcourse

Faculty of Philology

Scientific adviser: assistant of the Department of World

literature.

Grade:

Moscow 2006

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………….…4

Main part ……………………………………………………………….…7

ChapterI. Romanticism of Victor Hugo …………………………………………...7

ChapterII.

The storming of the cathedral at the same time shows the cunning policy of the French king in relation to the various social classes of his kingdom. The rebellion of the Parisian mob, mistaken at the beginning for an uprising directed against a judge who enjoyed wide feudal privileges and rights, is perceived by the king with barely restrained joy: it seems to him that his “good people” are helping him fight his enemies. But as soon as the king learns that the mob is storming not the judge's palace, but the cathedral, which is in his own possession, then "the fox turns into a hyena." Although the historian of Louis XI, Philippe de Commines, called him "the king of the common people," Hugo, who is by no means inclined to believe such characteristics, perfectly shows what the true aspirations of the king are. It is only important for the king to use the people for his own purposes, he can support the Parisian mob only insofar as

for she plays into his hands in his fight against feudalism, but brutally cracks down on her as soon as she gets in the way of his interests. At such moments, the king and the feudal lords find themselves, along with the churchmen, on one side of the barricades, while the people remain on the other. The tragic ending of the novel leads to this historically correct conclusion: the defeat of the rebellious crowd by the royal troops and the execution of the gypsy, as required by the church.

The finale of Notre Dame Cathedral, in which all its romantic heroes die a terrible death - Quasimodo, Claude Frollo, Esmeralda, and her numerous defenders from the Palace of Miracles - emphasizes the drama of the novel and reveals the philosophical concept of the author. The world is arranged for joy, happiness, kindness and the sun, as the little dancer Esmeralda understands it. But feudal society spoils this world with its unrighteous courts, church prohibitions, and royal arbitrariness. The upper classes are guilty of this before the people. That is why the author of Notre Dame Cathedral justifies the revolution as a cleansing and renewal of the world.

The philosophical concept of Hugo in the 1930s - a world created on the antithesis of the beautiful, sunny, joyful and evil, ugly, inhuman, artificially imposed on him by secular and spiritual authorities - is tangibly reflected in the romantic artistic means of Notre Dame Cathedral.

CHAPTERIII.

VICTOR HUGO IN RUSSIA.

for the third century now it has attracted the attention of researchers involved in both Russian and Western European literature. A huge amount of work has been done: the influence of Hugo on Russian writers (Pushkin, Lermontov, Nekrasov, Herzen, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy and others) has been traced; a significant number of critical works have been written on the work of the French romantic himself, his poetic, dramatic, and prose works have been translated.

What did Victor Hugo know about Russia?

Hugo was told about Russian culture by Russians who lived in Paris. Hugo could meet Russians in Paris from the 1920s in the salons of Sophia Gay, Mme Recamier, Mme Anselot (her salon lasted 40 years from 1824 to 1864). In the 30s, Russians began to visit Hugo in his house: since 1839, Prince Meshchersky visited him, student Vasily Petrovich Botkin came to see his idol, the writer Nikolai Petrovich Grech was presented with an autographed copy of "Inner Voices"; in the 40s, Herzen met his favorite writer, Dargomyzhsky brought the opera Esmeralda (1839) to the libretto of Hugo himself (it was intended for the composer Louise Bertin) based on the novel Notre Dame Cathedral.

For the first time, Victor Hugo was known in Russia in 1824: in the Vestnik Evropy they published a translation of an article by the French columnist of the Journal de Debs by Hoffmann, which was called “On New Odes” by Victor Hugo and Romantic Poetry. The translator of the article made his own remarks about Hugo, noting that “the poet is not without talent, he is committed to romantic pranks,” and added that “our Hugons” appeared in Russia, dreaming of romantic looseness and poetic liberties of the language. But at that time no one could imitate Hugo in Russia. Until the 1920s, role models could be Corneille, Racine, Moliere, at best, Voltaire. The works of these French writers were known to Russian society, which read French.

Toward the end of the 1920s and the beginning of the 1930s, a small circle of educated people had the idea of ​​introducing the new Western European literature to the Russian public. Vyazemsky proposes to publish a number of collections of European literature (English, French, German). At this time, the Moscow Bulletin, Telescope, and Son of the Fatherland appeared. Polevoy gives preference to French literature, and the first translations of the works of Chenier, Chateaubriand, Lamartine, Constant, Vigny, Balzac, Hugo, critical articles about these writers appear in the Moscow Telegraph. All this leads to the fact that young French romantic literature finds its admirers among the Russian public in the 30s. Subsequently, in their literary memoirs, Panaev, Buturlin, Wulf, Küchelbecker will write how lyceum students of the 30s were fond of Hugo's poetry, how two reading friends could cry over Hernani, and in bookstores their mothers "subscribed" to take books by French romantics for themselves and their children, including girls. (Wulf. M., 1829; Küchelbeker. L., 1929; Panaev memories. St. Petersburg, 1876; and others.).

At this time, albums, where beloved romantic poems were copied, came into fashion. In them you can find such poems by Hugo as "Enthusiasm", "Ladzara", "Farewell of the Arabian Woman", "Desire" from "Oriental Motifs". These poetic collections were extremely fond of. This passion was passed on to subsequent generations. Romantic verses were written in the same beaded handwriting in the albums of the 60s. In some of them, for example, in the album of 1865 by Natalia Mikhailovna Sollogub, there were still excerpts from the Legend of the Ages, pieces from The Toilers of the Sea and Les Misérables. Thus, the taste for the romantic works of Hugo became an integral part of private, family and school literary reading, though not without the efforts of journalists, critics and translators. There were more and more fans of Hugo's work in Russia.

Bestuzhev-Marlinsky "reveres" Hugo. He excites in him

creative jealousy, longing for literary glory. Pushkin was more reserved about Hugo. About "Oriental Motifs" he spoke as follows: "brilliant, albeit strained," but at the same time a copy of this collection with notes by a Russian poet has been preserved. So he studied. Pushkin praised "Ernani", but condemned "Cromwell".

Turgenev, who lived in Paris and did not miss anything from the novelties of romanticism on the French stage, was more fond of parodies of Hernani than the drama of Hugo itself.

And yet, Hugo's work for the Russian reader is an important social event, it was associated with the new era of French literature. Emotionally, they were interested in his drama: both "Cromwell" and "Ernani" quickly became famous in Russia. For the next decade, the Russian press reported on the premieres of performances based on Hugo's plays in Paris, and reviews of French critics were translated. The enthusiastic attitude towards Hugo's work continued: his novel Notre Dame Cathedral was an extraordinary success. Even the harshest critics, for example, Panaev, were delighted, and yet he began reading the novel in irritation. The beneficial influence of Hugo was experienced by Russian writers (L. Tolstoy), who connected the aesthetic conquests of romanticism with their artistic tasks, learned from the Romantic Hugo to show "real life with its real hardships." In the Soviet Union, the work of Victor Hugo was so popular that his works were included in the school curriculum. Which of the schoolchildren did not know by heart “Behind the barricades, on an empty street”, a poem from the poetic collection “The Terrible Year” (1871) or “The day will hardly take” from “Contemplations” (1856), who until recently was not familiar with the adventures of Gavroche and Cosettes from his novel Les Misérables. Perhaps this novel, translated into Russian in 1882, was the most famous work in the USSR.

Conclusion.

Today, two hundred years after the birth of Victor Hugo (), we are witnessing that the work of the great French writer has not lost its strength and relevance. And not only because all over the world they sing melodies from the musical "Notre Dame Cathedral", and Europe unites and turns into almost the United States of Europe, which the great romantic dreamed of since 1848, which finally happened and one more his dream: in many countries of the world the death penalty has been abolished, but also because his work, which knows no barriers or boundaries, is an open book in which every reader can find what only he is interested in. And this means that Hugo is modern. I would like to pay tribute to a man who has become a particle of the 19th, 20th, and now the 21st century, whose mighty genius belongs to all mankind, and his work has become part of world culture.

The books of the romantic Hugo, thanks to their humanity, constant striving for a moral ideal, bright, fascinating artistic embodiment of satirical anger and inspired dreams, continue to excite both adults and young readers around the world.

The essence of the above is as follows:

§ in this work, the novel by Victor Hugo "Notre Dame Cathedral" was analyzed;

§ the whole range of problems was revealed: the problem of good and evil;

§ the images of the main characters of the novel were considered, and on the basis of their images the inconsistency of the external and internal world of a person was shown;

§ It has been proven that Victor Hugo left his mark on Russia and influenced Russian literature.

Thus, the main goal of my work has been fulfilled by solving a set of specific tasks, such as reviewing and analyzing the meaning of the novel; identifying its relevance.

Bibliography:

1. Victor Hugo. M., 1976.

2. Notre Dame Cathedral. M., 2005.

3. Victor Hugo: The creative path of the writer. - Collected Works, 1965, v. 6, p. 73-118.

4., V. Hugo and his Russian acquaintances ..., "Literary heritage", M., 1937, No. 31-32

5. Reizov is a historical novel in the era of romanticism. - L., 1958.

6., V. Hugo and the French revolutionary movement of the 19th century, M., 1952

7. History of French literature, v. 2, M., 1956

8. Collected works in 15 volumes. Introductory article by V. Nikolaev. - M., .

nine. . Witness of Victor Hugo's century. Sobr. cit., v.1. M: True, 1988.

ten. . Sobr. cit., v.13. M.-L., 1930.

Full text of the dissertation abstract on the topic "Traditions of Medieval Literature in the Poetry of French Romantics"

As a manuscript

TARASOVA Olga Mikhailovna

TRADITIONS OF MEDIEVAL LITERATURE IN THE POETRY OF THE FRENCH ROMANTICS (V. HUGO, A. DE VIGNY, A. DE MUSSET)

Specialty 10 01 03 - Literature of the peoples of foreign countries (Western European literature)

dissertations for the degree of candidate of philological sciences

Moscow 2007

The work was done at the Department of World Literature of the Philological Faculty of the Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University

supervisor

Doctor of Philology, Professor Sokolova Tatyana Viktorovna

Official Opponents*

Doctor of Philology, Professor Sokolova Natalya Igorevna

candidate of philological sciences, associate professor Fomin Sergey Matveevich

Lead organization -

Arzamas State Pedagogical Institute. A.P. Gaidar

The defense will take place. years in hours in session

Dissertation Council D 212 154 10 at the Moscow State Pedagogical University at the address. 119992, Moscow, Malaya Pirogovskaya st., 1, room.......

The dissertation can be found in the library Mill U 119992, Moscow, Malaya Pirogovskaya, 1

Scientific Secretary of the Dissertation Council

Kuznetsova, A I

Romanticism in the literature of the 19th century is a complex aesthetic phenomenon that takes shape as a system and as a whole culture, as a special type of worldview, which is based on contradictions associated with an in-depth study of the human Soul, social conflicts and national characteristics. Romanticism is marked by a special interest in the problems of history, on on the basis of which romantic historiography arose

The formation of romanticism in France is associated with the names of J. de Stael, F. R. Chateaubriand, B. Constant, E. de Senacourt, whose work falls on the period of the Empire (1804-1814), in the 20s of the XIX century, A. de Lamartine entered the literary arena , A de Vigny, V. Hugo, A Dumas The 30s of the 19th century are associated with the romantics of the fucking generation. A. de Musset, J Sand, E. Xu, T. Gauthier and others

The creative heritage of Alfred de Vigny (1797-1863), Victor Hugo (Victor Hugo, 1802-1885) and Alfred de Musset (1810-1857) falls on the heyday of French romanticism1

In the XX century. in French literary criticism, a tradition of a scientific approach to romantic creativity can be traced. The studies of P Lasser and J. Berteau are devoted to the philosophical and aesthetic aspects of the works of French romantics. 2 Members of the literary organizations Association des Amis de Victor Hugo and Association des Amis d Alfred de Vigny3

In Russia, a special interest in French romanticism arose at the end of the 19th century. A general analysis of individual works by Hugo and Vigny is presented in the works of N. Kotlyarevsky and N. Bizet4 In the critical literature of the 20th century, the works of D. D. Oblomievsky, B.G. Particular attention is paid to the epistolary heritage of the Romantics5.

1 Bun B Idées sur le romantisme et romantiques -Pans, 1881, Brunetère F Evolution de la poésie lyrique -Pans, 1894

2 Lasser P Le romantisme français -Pans, 1907, Bertaut J L "epoque romantique -Pans, 1914, MoreauP Le romantisme -Pans, 1932

3 Halsall A La rhétonque déhberative dans les oeuvres oratoires et narratives de Victor Hugo -Pans, 2001, BesmerB L ABCdaire de Victor Hugo -Paris, 2002 Lassalle J -P Vigny vu par deux hommes de letteres qui sont des dames H Association des Amis d "Alfred de Vigny. - Paris, 2006 4Kotlyarevsky H XIX century Reflection of his main thoughts and moods in the artistic work in the West - Pg-d, Î921, Kotlyarevsky H The history of romantic mood in Europe in the XIX century Romantic mood in France 42 - St. Petersburg, 1893, Bizet H History of development feelings of nature - St. Petersburg, 1890

5 For the first time, the most complete archive of A de Musset was published in 1907 by Leon Sechet (Séché L A. de Musset Correspondance (1827-1857)) -P, 1887 This edition included Musset's letters to J. Sand, drafts of songs and sonnets , separate notes In 2004, A de Vigny's diary was translated into Russian (A de Vigny's Diary of a Poet's Letters of Last Love / Ade Vigny, Translated from French, Foreword by TV Sokolova - St. Petersburg, 2004)

In modern studies by S H Zenkin, V A Lukov, V P Trykov and others, French poetry is presented in the context of European aesthetic traditions. French romanticism is characterized by the transformation of the system of literary genres and an appeal to the plots of past eras. In the vast research literature on romanticism, there are areas that have been studied fragmentarily and superficially. This concerns the question of the influence of medieval literature on the work of French romantics.

The versatility of the work of Vigny, Hugo and Musset makes it possible to choose new aspects of research, one of which is to study the traditions of medieval literature in the poetry of romantic poets. One of the important aspects of the work of romantics is the appeal to the legacy of the past. as historicism Romantics paid attention to a critical review and interpretation of the centuries-old accumulations of culture, artistic and philosophical, and were among the first to turn to the systematic study of the spiritual heritage of the Middle Ages

The above aspect substantiates the choice of the topic of this dissertation: the traditions of medieval literature in the poetry of the French romantics Hugo, Vigny and Musset.

The creative individuality of each of them did not exclude either belonging to one literary movement - romanticism, or participation in the same publications "Globe", "La Muse française", "Revue des Deux Mondes" Having united in the literary circle "Senacle", they were both readers and critics of each other. Important information, critical reviews of modern literature and each other's work are contained in the letters and diaries of romantic poets. It should be noted that the romantics created their works in general historical conditions and at the same time gave a different assessment of the events previous years

The relevance of the topic of the dissertation research is determined by the growing interest that is observed in modern European literary criticism in the era of the XIX century and the poetic heritage of Hugo, Vigny and Musset. Their work is considered inextricably linked with the context of the era. the process of its formation and development

The scientific novelty of the work lies in posing the problem of the reception of medieval literature in relation to French romanticism, as well as in determining the chosen aspect in which the creative heritage of Hugo, Vigny and Musset has not yet been considered in either domestic or foreign literary criticism. -literary context that unites and separates romantics This paper examines for the first time the romantic ballads of Hugo and Vigny The dissertation examines the specifics of interpretation

biblical material in romantic poetry Material is introduced into scientific circulation that illuminates the work of not one, but three romantic poets, gives a comparative and contrastive analysis of poetic texts, untranslated and draft versions of works are used, as well as works that have been studied in domestic literary criticism to date fragmentary: Vigny's mysteries and Hugo's poems on biblical subjects

The scientific and practical significance of the study lies in the fact that its results can be used in the development of general questions and courses on the history of foreign literature of the 19th century, special courses for students studying French language and literature, in the preparation of special courses and seminars on foreign folklore, cultural studies

The material and object of the study are the texts of French medieval ballads, as well as the literary-critical, historical and epistolary heritage of Hugo, Vigny and Musset, which makes it possible to identify the features of the reception of medieval literature in romanticism.

The purpose of the work is to study the traditions of medieval literature in French romantic poetry. To achieve the goal, the following tasks were set - to determine the role of historicism in romantic poetry, which, on the one hand, allows us to identify common features in the works of these authors that are characteristic of the aesthetics of French romanticism, and on the other hand, to determine the individual features that reflect the worldview of each of the poets,

To identify the specifics of the medieval ballad tradition and its continuation in romanticism, both in terms of identifying the individual characteristics of the ballad genre in the poetry of these authors, and in terms of establishing general trends in the evolution of the French ballad,

To trace the evolution of the ballad genre in the romantic poetry of the 19th century,

Highlight the features of the mystery genre in the Middle Ages,

Analyze the mysteries of Vigny;

consider the interpretation of biblical stories in the poems of Hugo, Vigny and Musset as a reflection of the philosophical views of the above authors,

The theoretical and methodological basis of the study was the works of domestic and foreign scientists. The problem of the poetics of medieval literature is devoted to the works of A. V. Veselovsky, V. M. Zhirmunsky, A. V. Mikhailov, A. Ya. Gurevich. Deep research in the field of medieval culture belongs to A Ya Gurevich, D.L. Chavchanidze, V.P.

6 Veselovsky A.N Historical poetics - M., 1989, Zhirmunsky V, M Theory of literature Poetics Stylistics - L, 1977, Mikhailov A V Problems of historical poetics - M, 1989

Darkevich7 Heroic epos and chivalric novels are considered in the works of foreign philologists F. Brunethier, G Paris, R Lalu, J. Butier, J. Duby, M Cerra, A. Keller, P Zumptor8. When analyzing romantic ballads in French literature in the context of ballads from other European countries, the studies of VF Shishmarev, OJI Moshchanskaya, AA Gugnin9 were used.

The most complete collection of author's ballads in French is presented in Histoire de la langue et de la littérature française (History of Language and French Literature, 1870). The poetic heritage of Christine of Pisa in Old French is reflected in the multi-volume edition Oeuvres poétiques de Christine de Pisan (Poetical Works of Christine of Pisa, 1874)

The major work on medieval France M. de Marchangy “Tristan le voyageur, ou La France au XIV siècle” (Tristan the traveler or France in the XTU century, 1825) remains of current importance. This multi-volume study contains a description of the life, customs, traditions, religion of medieval France, excerpts from literary works of mysteries, songs, ballads, historical chronicles

The study of the biography and work of Vigny, Hugo and Musset is devoted to the studies of G Lanson, D D Oblomievsky, B.G. Reizova, T. V. Sokolova10 Among the works of foreign authors, we highlight the studies of F. Balvdensperger, F. Germain, G. Saint Breeze11

Research methods: comparative-typological, cultural-historical and biographical methods

7 Gurevich A Ya Medieval world culture of the silent majority - M ,1990, Chavchanidze D L The phenomenon of art in German romantic prose medieval model and its destruction, - M, 1997, Darkevich V P Popular culture of the Middle Ages - M, 2005, Darkevich V P Argonauts of the Middle Ages -M,2005

8 Brunetiere F L "Evolution de la poésie lyrique en France - P, 1889, Lalou R Les étapes de la poesie française - P, 1948, Boutière J Biographies des Troubadours - P, 1950, Duby J Middle Ages - M, 2000, Segguy M Les romans du Graal ou le signe imaginé t - P, 2001, Keller H Autour de Roland Recherches sur la chanson de geste -P, 2003, Zumptor P Experience in building medieval poetics - St. Petersburg, 2004

9 Shishmarev V F Lyrics and lyrics of the late Middle Ages - M, 1911, Moshchanskaya O L Folk ballad of England and Scotland (cycle about Robin Hood) Candidate's thesis - M, 1967, Moshchanskaya O L Folk and poetic creativity of England of the Middle Ages Doctoral dissertation - M, 1988, GugninAA Eolovaarfa Ballad Anthology -M, 1989

10 Lanson G History of French Literature T 2 - M, 1898, Reizov B G The creative path of Victor Hugo / B G Reizov // Bulletin of Leningrad State University - 1952, Reizov B G History and theory of literature - L, 1986, Reizov B G French romantic historiography ( 1815-1830) - L, 1956, Reizov BG French historical novel in the era of romanticism - L, 1958, Sokolova TV Philosophical poetry Ade Vigny - L, 1981, Sokolova TV From romanticism to symbolism Essays on the history of French poetry - St. Petersburg, 2005

1 Baldenspetger F A (fe \ Hgjy Nouvelbcon (ributaasabmgiqtenile & ctuelle-P, 1933, GennaiaF L "imagination d" A de Vigny -P, 1961, SamtBnsGonzague Alfed de Vigny ou la volupté et l "honneur - P "1997

Provisions for defense:

1 The aesthetic concept of French romanticism, which was influenced by German philosophy (I. Herder, F. Hegel, F. Schelling), is associated with the formation of the French national tradition, with the revival of interest in medieval literature in the works of V. Hugo, A de Vigny, A de Musset

2 The principle of historicism, discovered by the romantics, determined the originality not only of French historiography of the 19th century, but, above all, of the artistic creation of the era. The historical, lyrical ballads of Hugo and Vigny are full of details of the past. At the same time, historical persons and events are recreated with the help of fiction, creative imagination, reflecting the worldview of poets, their individual author's style.

3 The evolution of the ballad and mystery genre in the works of romantics, associated with the blurring of genre boundaries, the mixing of lyrical and dramatic principles, reflects one of the features of romanticism - the movement towards a free genre

4 Interpretation of biblical stories and images in the works of Hugo ("God", "Conscience", "The first meeting of Christ with the tomb"), Musset ("Hope in God"), Vigny ("Eloa", "Flood", "Moses", "Daughter of Jephthah") was a reflection of the philosophical and religious searches of poets

5 The appeal of the French romantics Hugo, Vigny and Musset to the historical, cultural and poetic heritage of the Middle Ages enriched their work at the philosophical and aesthetic levels

Approbation of work. The main provisions of the dissertation were presented in the form of reports and communications at the following scientific conferences XV Purishev Readings (Moscow, 2002); Problems of the language picture of the world at the present stage (Nizhny Novgorod, 2002-2004); Session of young scientists Humanities (Nizhny Novgorod, 2003-2007); Russian-Foreign Literary Relations (Nizhny Novgorod, 2005 - 2007) 11 works have been published on the topic of the dissertation.

The structure of the work: the dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography, including 316 titles; of which 104 are in French. The total amount of work is 205 pages 5

The introduction substantiates the relevance of the chosen topic, the novelty and practical significance of the work, formulates its goals and objectives, provides an overview of domestic and foreign criticism on the problems of creativity of Hugo, Vigny, Musset

The first chapter - "Traditions of medieval literature through the prism of romantic historicism" - is devoted to literary and aesthetic theory

French romanticism, the formation of an aesthetic concept, the main role of which is to strengthen the French national tradition

The first paragraph, "Historicism as a Principle of Romantic Aesthetics," examines the emergence and evolution of French historicism. In the 1820s, history becomes of great importance in the spiritual life of the country. The Revolution, its consequences are comprehended at the level of historical laws. philosophical research and artistic creativity. Philosophy turned into the philosophy of history and the history of philosophy, the novel became a historical novel, poetry revived ballads and ancient legends. A circle of liberal historians is formed in France. -1874) They created a new philosophy of history and romantic liberal historiography Ogtosten Thierry published his "Letters on French History" (Lettres sur l "histoire de France, 1817), and Michelet in "History of France" (L "histoire de France, 1842) he added unpublished acts, diplomas and charters to the published documents.

Interest in the cultural heritage of the past, characteristic of the Restoration era, predetermined the publication of the books "Poetic Gaul" by Marchangi and "History of French Poetry of the XII-XIII centuries." C. Nodier The means of knowing and depicting the past for the romantics was the recreation of local color (couleur locale). This concept includes both life and attributes of material culture (tools, clothing, weapons, etc.), as well as the consciousness of the people, traditions, beliefs, ideals

The appeal of the Romantics to the heritage of the Middle Ages is inextricably linked with the principle of historicism, which consists in the romantic depiction of past eras, customs and traditions of that time, historical persons and events in interaction with fiction and imagination. , F Schelling. Their ideas are not copied, but reinterpreted into an aesthetic concept, the main role of which is to strengthen the French national tradition and revive medieval literature Historicism is not just the main principle of romantic aesthetics, it becomes a means of strengthening national self-knowledge and awareness of the national and historical diversity of different cultures

In the second paragraph, "The Significance of the Creative Achievements of Walter Scott for the Formation of French Romanticism"

the role of the "Scottish sorcerer" in the development of French romantic poetry and prose is analyzed

and customs of Scotland through the collection "Songs of the Scottish Border" or "Poetry of the Scottish Borders" (1802 - 1803), which included old folk ballads and imitations of them.

Folk ballads helped Scott comprehend the truth of history, the psychology of people who lived in ancient times. Numerous legends and images of folk art add a poetic flavor to his works and, along with this, highlight the characteristic features of the depicted era itself. Medieval poetry conveyed the peculiarities of the customs of that time. In Songs of the Scottish Border, he presented half-forgotten historical events

Following Scott, the romantics of other European countries are fond of depicting national history. They turn to the genres of the historical novel and the ballad. Scott's historical novels Ivanhoe and Quentin Dorward had a great influence on the French Romantics. In France, the first serious novel "in the spirit" of W. Scott was "Saint-Mar" (1826) by Vigny. It is followed by "Chronicles of the times of Charles IX" (1829) by Mérimée and "Chuans" (1829) by Balzac. The novelty of Scott's discoveries lies in the depiction of a person conditioned by the historical era and in observing the peculiarities of the local color.

Hugo, in his article "On Walter Scott" (1823), devoted to the analysis of the novel "Quentin Dorward", admired the talent of the English novelist: "There are few historians who are as committed to the truth as this novelist. He draws people who lived before us with all their passions, vices and crimes .., "12. In 1837, Vigny wrote in his diary: “I thought that the historical novels of W Scott were too easily composed, since the action is played out among fictional characters whom the author makes to do as he wants, and in the distance, on the horizon, an outstanding historical figure passes, whose the presence gives the book great significance and helps to assign it to a certain era”13.

Vigny, unlike Scott, is not fond of depicting folk customs, he is primarily interested in the fate of historical figures.

The third paragraph "The problem of history in the artistic work of romantics" is devoted to the specifics of the depiction of historical events in romantic works. The main aesthetic provisions are set out in the preface to the drama Cromwell (Preface du Cromwell, 1827) by Hugo and in Reflections on Truth in Art (Reflection sur la vérité dans l "art, 1828) Vigny. Hugo put forward his aesthetic principles, according to which the choice of the plot of a historical work and its interpretation should contain moral instructions for the present.Vigny advocated the preservation of the accuracy of the material presented - "the historian must maintain severity and try to hold on to the truth with mathematical Accuracy. History imperceptibly

12 Hugo In Poly Sobr Op -M..19S6 -T 14 -C. 47

13 Vigny Ade A poet's diary. Letters of last love - St. Petersburg, 2004 - С 1477

balances between the two axioms senbitur ad narratum - they write in order to tell and scribitur ad probandum - they write in order to prove "14 But the main criterion for the truth and veracity of a historical work, according to the Romantics, was the expression of the spirit of the historical era. Following the principle of "historicism" , poets studied information and chronicles not only about official events, but also about the customs and traditions of everyday life of ordinary people, noble nobles and ministers of the church Folk ballads, legends, legends, songs helped to recreate the flavor of past eras Fiction not only revealed the truth, but also created her

Following Scott, Hugo and Vigny turned to historical events, the Romantics used topographical details and descriptions of architectural structures, trying to comprehend the meaning of historical events. as well as a set of plot-compositional means determined by the historicity of the material. The expression of the spirit of the historical era of romance was considered the main criterion for the truth and veracity of a historical work.

The second chapter - "The ballad tradition in French literature and its development in romanticism" - examines the medieval ballad and the development of its traditions by romantics.

In the first paragraph, "Genre of the ballad in the Middle Ages," medieval ballads are examined. It seems possible to classify medieval ballads according to the nature of authorship

The first type is anonymous folk ballads, these include anonymous songs of the 12th century (“Pernetta”, “Reno”, “Mountain”, etc.) The second type is author's, indicating a specific author, these include the poetic works of Bernard de Ventadorn ( 1140 - 1195), Jaufre Rudel (1140 -1170), Bertrand de Born (1140 - 1215), Peyre Vidal (1175 - 1215), Christina of Pisa (1363 - 1389) ballads of the “Viyon” type, since in France itself in the Middle Ages, the ballads meant precisely the ballads of F Villon. Their peculiarity, as GKosikov notes, is determined by Villon’s attitude to the cultural and poetic tradition of the mature Middle Ages, in its transformation into “material for an ironic game”15

The medieval French ballad is a composition with a refrain, close to dance songs The subject of medieval ballads is extensive love adventures, courtly service to the Beautiful Lady Some ballad works are dedicated to historical events and have features of the lyric-epic genre A distinctive feature of medieval French ballads is the predominance of love and patriotic

14 Vigny Ade Poet's Diary Letters of Last Love - St. Petersburg, 2004 -С 346

15VillonF Poems Sat / FVillon, Compiled by GKKosikov -M, 2002 -S 19

themes The plots of the ballads are concise, the works have a pronounced confessional character The work is based on memories of unrequited love The narration is in the first person, the lyrical, subjective principle prevails over the objective depiction of events Ballads of the late period (Villon) have a premise (address to the addressee) Song intonation ballad works is found in the musicality of the verse In view of the special nature of medieval lyrics and its close connection with music, transfers from verse to verse (enjambements) were used, which brought poetry closer to the rhythms of live colloquial speech Song intonation, melodiousness are created by musical rhythms, repetitions and rhythmic-syntactic symmetry Each new passage of the ballad is intonationally and rhythmically separated from the previous one. In contrast to the German and Scottish ballads, in which most of the heroes are fairy-tale characters (the merman in the ballad Lilothea, the witch in Count Friedrich, the devil in the ballad De mon-lover"), French ones do not have fantastic motifs. In addition, patriotic themes are not presented as vividly as in English ballads. at Otterburn", "Battle of Garlo", etc.)

The second paragraph of the second chapter "Traditions of the medieval ballad in French romanticism" is devoted to the development of the ballad genre in romantic poetry. Literary romantic ballads arise in the 19th century Folklore and song art, the traditions of Provençal poetry and works Percy, Machpherson and Scott Romantics often use the term "ballad" in the titles of collections and individual works.

The research material in this chapter is Hugo's ballads "The Fairy" (La Fée, 1824), "The Timpanist's Bride" (La fiancée du timbalier, 1825), "Grandmother" (La Grand - mère 1826), "King John's Tournament" (Le Pas d "arme du rois Jean, 1828), "The Burgrave's Hunt" (La Chasse du burgrave, 1828), "The Legend of the Nun" (La Légende de la none, 1828), "The Witches' Round Dance" (La Ronde du Sabbat, 1828) , Vigny's poems "Snow" (La Neige, 1820) and "Horn" (Le Cor, 1826), songs by Musset and Beranger

It seems to us possible to classify the French literary ballad according to the characteristics of the content. In these works, the main features of the ballad genre are traced, the combination of epic, lyrical and dramatic elements, an appeal to the folklore-song tradition, sometimes to composition with a refrain

1. Historical, where we are talking about a historical event, for example, “The Tournament of King John”, “The Matchmaking of Roland” by Hugo, “Snow”, “Horn”, “Madame de Subise” by Vigny

2 Fantastic, where the heroes of the work are fairy-tale characters, for example, "Fairy", "Dance of Witches" by Hugo

3 Lyrical, where the center of the composition is the world of feelings of the characters, for example, "The Timpanist's Bride", Hugo's "Grandmother". Romantics used a variety of plots and rhythms of medieval ballads. The passion for the ballad genre of romantic poets was associated with the resurrection of national antiquity, it reflected an interest in medieval legends and folk poetry in general. Comparing romantic ballads and lyrics of the Middle Ages, we can conclude that poets of the XIX century had a deep knowledge of French courtly lyrics. They use the names of historical and fictional characters to recreate the local flavor. Jousting and royal hunting are vividly represented in Hugo's ballads King John's Tournament and The Burgrave's Hunt.

The name of the beautiful Isolde was widespread in the Middle Ages Queen Isolde ~ the central character of the courtly novels “Tristan and Isolde” by Tom, “Honeysuckle” by Marie of France Like the medieval beauty, the heroines of the romantic ballads Hugo and Vigny have blond hair, they are the most beautiful and always excite the heart heroes. The theme of unhappy love was widespread in chivalric romances and Provencal lyrics, their plots received a new sound in the lyrical ballads of romantics. The Timpanist's Bride, Hugo's The Legend of the Nun, and Vigny's Snow. An individual feature of Hugo's ballads is the frequent use of epigraphs, quotations from ancient chronicles, the functions of which are different in each work, sermon ("The Burgrave's Hunt"), the expression of the main idea of ​​the whole work, the transmission of the color of the era ("King John's Tournament"), a warning about the tragic ending ("The Timpanist's Bride")

The theme of Notre Dame Cathedral, as a symbol of the Middle Ages, can be traced in Hugo's poetry and prose. Hugo called Notre Dame Cathedral “The Great Book of Humanity” and expressed his admiration for the architecture of the past in the novel of the same name. The writer repeatedly noted the connection between architecture and the spiritual life of past generations, and argued that the dominant ideas of each generation are reflected in architecture. The poet also refers to the cathedral in poetic works, the ballad "King John's Tournament", the poem "April Evening".

A separate paragraph within the second chapter is "Song Tradition in the Lyrics of the Romantics", where the relationship between such genres as a ballad and a song is considered on the example of the songs of Beranger and Musset.

Lyrical love songs make up a large part of Beranger's poetic heritage ("Noble Friend", "Spring and Autumn", "Nightingales"). They trace a connection with medieval folklore: lightness, joyful perception of life, inspired by the awakening of nature. titles of many poems included in

the collection “Songs” (Chanson, 1840), there are references to birds whose presence is associated with spring, sometimes love, hopes “Bird”, “Nightingales”, “Swallows”, “Phoenix”, “Thrush”

Musset's poetic work contains a large number of songs and ditties, the distinguishing feature of which is autobiography and an appeal to a folk ballad. Musset's works were usually published under the heading "Song" (chanson) or "Song" (chant) "Andalusian" (L "Andalouse, 1826), "Song" (Chanson, 1831), "Song of Fortunio" (Chanson de Fortimio, 1835) , “Song of Barberina” (Chanson de Barbenne, 1836), “Song” (Chanson, 1840), “Mimi Pinson” (Mimi Pinson, 1846) At the same time, “Song” contained elements of medieval ballads and canson, told about love “Song” it was also identified with heroic dramas, told about knightly campaigns. Romantic and medieval works are in many ways similar; the narration is conducted in the first person, imperative verb constructions are used.

Musset did not call his poetic works ballads, with the exception of Ballade Facing the Moon (Ballade à la lune, 1830). reality by romantic poets Here there is romantic irony, which is one of the most important categories of romantic aesthetics. The title of the ballad contains a premise characteristic of medieval authors, and the irony and apt characteristics bring this work closer to Villon's poetry.

The last paragraph of the second chapter & Interpretation of epic cycles in the poetry of Hugo and V yin and "is devoted to the interpretation of the legends about Roland in French romanticism Vigny published the ballad" Horn "(Cor, 1826), Hugo also turned to the story of Roland in the poem Roland's Marriage" (Le Manage de Roland, 1859), included in the collection "Legend of the Ages"

Romantics created new works of art, using the style and poetics of medieval literature to one degree or another. They turn to national history, "self-identify" with the poets of the past and their heroes, strive to preserve the national flavor and tell new generations about the hero of the French epic in their own way. Vigny's ballads and Hugo demonstrate a deep knowledge by the authors of medieval literary sources of ancient chronicles, versions of epic poems But, unlike Vigny, who strictly followed the original source in his ballad, Hugo, conveying the flavor of the place and time, uses both historical and fictional characters in the imei ballads. It should be noted that in the works of French romantics the logical system of images and the tragic coloring of the events presented are preserved. To convey the atmosphere of a knightly battle, poets use lexemes, a description of the attributes of knightly life - spears (lances), castle (chateau), horn (cor), fanfares

(fanfares), battle, massacre (carnage), blade (lame) In medieval texts there is a detailed description of the sword and horn of the brave Roland Following this tradition, Hugo gives descriptions of the sword (Roland à son habit de fer, et Durandal (Roland in iron mail and Durandal), Durandal brille (Durandal glistens), and in Vigny's poem the horn is personified (Deux éclairs ont relui, puis deux autres encore / Ici V on entendit le son lointain du Cor / Two lightning bolts and two others in a row 1 Then a distant horn was heard rolling)

The French romantic ballad continues the traditions of the medieval ballad, supplementing the genre with new images and artistic techniques. A distinctive feature of French romantic ballads is the appeal to symbols, knightly heraldry, conveying the national flavor of the era. allowed to recreate the atmosphere of knightly battles

Considering the poetry of Hugo, Vigny and Musset from the point of view of Christian mythology, we highlight the biblical themes and motifs associated with it, which is the subject of the third chapter of the study - "Christian Mythology in the Poetry of the French Romantics".

The 19th century brought a lot of new things to the perception of religion and its reflection in literary work In our study, we examined the issue of the attitude of the Romantics to religious issues and Christian dogma Each of the Romantics sought to convey to his contemporaries and future generations his idea of ​​faith and God religious ideas, as evidenced not only by the works of art created by them, but also by diary entries and letters to friends and relatives

The first paragraph, "The Romantic Conception of Christianity," reveals the attitude of the Romantics to questions of religion. For the Romantics, Christianity is not only a creed, but also a motif of poetic inspiration. Unlike Vigny, who in any work on the biblical story makes inaccuracies in order to emphasize his thought, Hugo in most of his works is faithful to the biblical text, without even changing the individual statements of the heroes. He believed that, along with Christianity and through it, a new feeling, more than seriousness, and less than sadness - melancholy, the languor of the soul and heart - a favorite theme of romantics The romantic concept of melancholy is a complex phenomenon that includes both the mood of a person and the tension of thought intellectual, and creative pursuits Melancholy is directly related to the revival of Christian mythology

"The Mystery Genre in the Middle Ages" - the second paragraph of the third chapter. We present an analysis of the medieval mysteries "The Act of Adam" (Jeu

d "Adame), "The Mystery of the Old Testament" (Mystère du vieux Testament), "The Mystery of the Passion" (Mystère de la Passion)

These works cover the most important events set forth in the Bible In many mysteries, images are presented not only of the main characters (Christ, Mother of God), but also of minor ones (prophets)

Romantics also turned to the mystery genre, rethinking plots and characters, calling their works mysteries, and later poems. artistic idea and present the author's romantic myth about the world, man and nature. The romantic concept of personality turned out to be receptive to the religious system of thinking, which corresponded to the structural principle of "two worlds" Medieval and romantic mysteries are brought closer by the appeal to biblical stories, but for the romantics the mystery is a new genre Artists of the word change the sequence of the facts of the Bible, introduce new characters into the plot construction The meaning of such changes lies in the fact that the main conflict is transferred from the external stage action to the souls of the characters. The lyrical hero of the romantic mystery is lonely and partly an alterego of the author of Romance, unlike medieval authors, they endow Cain, Lucifer with positive characteristics

We examine the works of art by Romantic poets, in which biblical stories are interpreted. In his work, Hugo refers to the images of the Old and New Testaments of Eve (“Glorification of a Woman” (Le sacre de la femme-Eve), Cain (“Conscience” (La Conscience), Ruth and Boaz ("Sleeping Booz" (Booz endormi) of Christ, Martha, Mary, Lazarus ("Christ's first meeting with the tomb" (Première rencontre du Christ avec le tombeau)), God and Satan ("God" cycle (Dieu), "The End of Satan" (La fin du Satan) The central characters of the gospel text are the heroes of the mysteries and philosophical poems of Vinyg Bog ("The Mount of Olives" (Le Mont des Oliviers), "Moses" (Moïse), "The Flood" (Le Déluge), " Eloa "(Eloa)," Daughter of Jephthah "(La Fdle de Jephte), Christ ("Mountain of Olives", cycle "Fates"), Moses ("Moses"), Sarah and Immanuel ("Flood"), Samson and Delilah ( "The Wrath of Samson" (La colère de Samson, 1863), Jephthah ("Daughter of Jephthah"), Satan ("Eloah") Images, external characteristics, actions and speech of characters from the works of Hugo and Vigny are not always coincide with the general interpretation of the Bible Being a true Catholic, Hugo, referring to biblical subjects, most often accurately reproduced the events of Holy Scripture, quoting word for word the speeches of Jesus and other prophets.

pantheistic views The Presence of God is reflected in all manifestations of wildlife So, Eve in the "Glorification of Woman" is beautiful, like life itself, and Ruth from the poem "Sleeping Booz" admires the beauty of the night sky and inhales the aromas of meadows and fields, the beautiful world created by God Violation of time and the spatial framework of the biblical text was deliberately allowed by the author to enhance the tragedy of the events depicted. For the fratricide of Cain, his descendants Zilla, Enoch, Tubal Cain, who, according to the Bible, were separated by centuries, suffer along with him.

Vigny's skepticism and Hugo's pantheism are associated with "neo-paganism", a current that arose as a religious reaction to the events of 1830. The followers of this movement expressed doubts about religious dogmas and rejected Christian doctrine in general.

Vigny's consciousness is marked by a movement towards deep skepticism and rejection of dogmatic religion. The poet denies the role of divine predestination in the destinies of people and all mankind. Self-sacrifice is an expression of man's independence in relation to God. Moses, Eloah, Jephthah, Lucifer and even Christ, who are endowed with features characteristic of heavenly creatures and earthly people Not only the desire for freedom, for choosing one's own individual path, but also compassionate love is a manifestation of humanity, which the poet contrasts with the hardness of God's heart Images God, Christ and Satan do not coincide with the general interpretation of the Biblical scripture. Vigny's God is always jealous (jaloux) and silent, as, for example, in the poems or mysteries "The Garden of Gethsemane", "Moses", and sometimes cruel, as in the poem "The Daughter of Jephthah »

The deep skepticism of the poet is reflected in the poem "Mount of Olives" and lies in the idea of ​​a ruthless and indifferent God who is so harsh on his son God leaves Christ at the moment when he is ready to die for the sake of people God the father deprives his son Jesus of support in the most difficult moment, leaving him to drink the bitter cup of fate to the end, become a victim of betrayal and die in agony on the cross for the sake of people Vigny saw the tragedy of Christ not in the betrayal of Judas, but in the silence of God

In the poem "The Daughter of Jephthah" Vigny solves the question of how an omnipotent creator can allow the suffering of mankind, and if he allows them, then is he really good and omnipotent? In the poem "The Daughter of Jephthah" God is ruthless and severe (Seigneur, vous bien le Dieu de la vengeance (Indeed, Lord, you are the God of cruel vengeance))

The famous legend of the daughter of Jephthah also served as the basis for J. G. Byron's "Jephtha's daughter" from the Hebrew melodies cycle (Hebrew melodies, 1814-1815). This plot is popular in world fiction and art in general. Vigny draws Jephthah a mighty warrior, liberator of three cities and at the same time a gentle father

The biblical story of Samson and Delilah inspired Vigny to create the poem "The Wrath of Samson" In this work, along with the narrative, the hero's monologue stands out, which makes up more than half of the poem and significantly removes it from the biblical source

The third paragraph "Biblical stories in the poems of Hugo and Musset" presents the interpretation of biblical tales in romantic poetry the image of the French romantic is freed from everything accidental and ugly His pantheism acquires an aesthetic sound Hugo’s poetic heritage contains works that show the destructive power of nature The poet also refers to the tragic scenes of the Bible The poem “Heavenly Fire” (Le feu du ciel, 1853) depicts death Sodom and Gomorrah For Hugo, fire is a living creature, his tongues burn, he is merciless Hugo changes the meaning of the biblical legend, after the fire he depicts not a happy world, but a lifeless desert there is no concept of the individual, Hugo p opposes his own, individual vision of tragic events, their assessment by a person for whom heavenly punishment is fire, not an act of justice, but a tragedy of the human masses ”16 Theomachy motives were also reflected in the poetic cycle“ God ”. separate references and commentary God for Hugo - a collective image - a higher being (être extreme), absolute justice (justice absolue), life-giving fire (la flamme au fond de toute chose) The poet offers everyone a choice whether to believe in God or not The titles of the chapters of the poem reflect different opinions Thus, the cross-cutting theme of the chapter entitled "Atheism" (L "Athéisme) is the denial of God

The image of Christ in Hugo's poems acquires new features He appears in the poem "Christ's First Encounter with the Tomb" The poet reproduces the episode of the resurrection of Lazarus and accurately conveys the words of the evangelist The poem "Sleeping Boaz" was based on the legend of the rich and pious Bethlehemite Boaz saw a magical dream about the continuation of his kind Here God appears not as a formidable ruler who condemns people to torment, but as a just father, a creator who gives a reward a murderer seeking to hide from the all-seeing eye of conscience The very title of the poem contains a philosophical meaning The main law is not God, but conscience

1S Sokolova TV From Romanticism to Symbolism Essays on the History of French Poetry - St. Petersburg, 2005 -С 69

Dissertation Introduction 2007, abstract on philology, Tarasova, Olga Mikhailovna

Romanticism in the literature of the 19th century is a complex aesthetic phenomenon that manifested itself in art, science, philosophy, and historiography. Literary criticism presents different points of view on determining the chronological framework for the existence of this phenomenon. Until recent decades, the emergence of romanticism was attributed to the end of the 18th century, but in recent years it is considered the first literary movement that opens the 19th century. Romanticism took shape as an aesthetic system and as a whole culture, comparable in scale and significance to the Renaissance. The most modern is the following definition of the features of this process, given by the scientists of St. Petersburg: “It (romanticism) is born and develops, first of all, as a special type of attitude. It is based on the assertion of the boundless potentials of the human personality and the tragic awareness of the limitations placed on the identification of these potentials by a hostile social environment” [Sokolova, 2003: 5]. Despite the commonality of the main aesthetic principles, romanticism in different European countries had its own individual features.

Features of French romanticism are associated with a number of historical circumstances. France is the birthplace of the revolution and the cardinal changes that followed it in the life of society: the Jacobin terror, the period of the Consulate and the Empire of Napoleon, the July Monarchy. In this regard, in France, changes in the usual way of life were especially painfully perceived, attempts were made to explain what was happening, the revolution was comprehended at the level of historical patterns. Writers, artists, composers, philosophers, public figures witnessed political upheavals and economic transformations, which is why history became the object of study not only by historians, but also by people of art. Romantics have a keen sense of time, which is combined with the desire to penetrate into the future and understand the past. In addition, romantics are characterized by a penetrating attitude to the great heroic heritage of the past, to its heroes and figures, who acted as spiritual companions, a kind of "alter ego" of the authors.

They considered national history to be the basis of a new culture. A.N. Veselovsky emphasized the special significance of medieval culture for romanticism. “The poetic image comes to life if it is experienced again by the artist” [Veselovsky, 1989: 22].

In our study, we consider the traditions of medieval literature in the poetry of V. Hugo, A. de Vigny, A. de Musset through the prism of the fundamental principle of romantic aesthetics - historicism. Historicism was especially developed in France. In the 20s of the XIX century. French historians F. Wilmain, P. de Barante, O. Mignet, F. Guizot, O. Thierry, A. Thiers created a school of liberal historians. According to the fair opinion of B.G. Reizov, "French romantic historiography goes far beyond the French national tradition" [Reizov, 1956: 352]. The historicism of the French Romantics was associated with the development of such literary genres as the historical novel, historical drama, and ballad.

Like no other European literature of that time, the literature of France was politicized. And a special image of reality received a peculiar embodiment in the work of various poets, writers, playwrights, who often themselves acted as political publicists. According to modern researchers, the stages of French romanticism quite clearly fit into the time frame of political regimes. At the same time, “the individual political orientations of the writer are quite important, but no more than other characteristics of his creative individuality, such as, for example, philosophical views or poetics. In addition, the work of any writer is a process that, one way or another, “flows” into the general mainstream of the literary movement and is subject, first of all, to the laws and dynamics of the development of literature” [Sokolova, 2003: 27].

The formation of romanticism in France is associated with the names of J. de Stael, F.R. Chateaubriand, B. Constant, E. de Senacourt, whose work falls on the period of the Empire (1804-1814). In the 1920s, A. de Lamartine, A. de Vigny, V. Hugo, A. Dumas entered the literary arena. In the 30s, romantics of the third generation came to literature: A. de Musset, J. Sand, E. Xu, T. Gauthier, and others.

The end of the 20s of the XIX century. becomes the culmination of the romantic movement in France, when the unity of romanticism, its opposition to classicism, is most fully realized. However, one cannot speak of the absolute unity of the Romantics. The relationship between the artists of the word was characterized by constant controversy, which concerned the chosen topics, the ways of their embodiment in a work of art.

Vigny, Hugo, Musset created at the same time, were familiar with each other, were members of literary circles, sometimes the same ones, corresponded, but with their work they represented different, sometimes opposite facets of French romantic literature. Comparison of the synchronously developing creativity of these romantics, the individual specifics of their philosophical views, allows us to more fully present such a literary phenomenon as French romanticism. It should be noted that the theoretical works of the Romantics, revealing their attitude to the new literary phenomenon, were published with a minimum time interval. So, in 1826, Vigny publishes Reflections on Truth in Art (Reflections sur la vérité dans l "art), and a few months later Hugo publishes a preface to the drama Cromwell (Cromwell), much later, in 1867, a theoretical Job

Musset "Literary and critical essays" (Mélanges de littérature et de critique).

One of the important aspects of their work is the appeal to the legacy of the past; in their theoretical works, romantic poets presented their understanding of such a phenomenon as romantic historicism. The Romantics paid attention to the critical review and interpretation of centuries-old accumulations of culture, artistic and philosophical. They wanted to renew their interest in the ancient world, almost for the first time they turned to the systematic study of the spiritual heritage of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

In the vast research literature on romanticism, there are areas that have been studied fragmentarily and superficially. This concerns the question of the influence of medieval literature on the work of French romantics. The versatility of the work of these authors makes it possible to choose new aspects of the study. This aspect is the revival of the traditions of medieval literature in the poetry of the three romantic poets.

The question of the relationship of the Romantic era to the Middle Ages is not new, but the literary aspect has not been sufficiently developed. According to the fair remark of D.L. Chavchanidze, most of the works contain private observations, “and the principles of romantic reception remain not singled out, not formulated. Meanwhile, such a fact as the convergence of two types of artistic and aesthetic thinking, which are far apart from one another in time, deserves serious consideration" [Chavchanidze, 1997: 3].

It is important to note that, contrary to the tradition of the Enlighteners, who considered the Middle Ages to be backward, reactionary, uncivilized, imbued with the spirit of clericalism, already from the beginning of the 19th century, a new attitude towards the Middle Ages was outlined, they began to look for lost valor and colorful exoticism in it. For romantics, as noted by A.Ya. Gurevich, the Middle Ages were not so much a chronological concept as a meaningful one [Gurevich, 1984:7].

When studying the work of romantics, it is necessary to refer to their theoretical works, diaries, and correspondence. Thus, thanks to the recent publication of Vigny's diary in Russian, valuable materials have been introduced into the everyday life of domestic literary criticism, clarifying "from the inside" important points in the creative history of many of Vigny's works, including those related to understanding the history and culture of the Middle Ages. T.V. Sokolova, in the comments to the "Poet's Diary", notes that "the poet's diary reflects, to a greater extent, not events, but thoughts that arise under the impression of everything that happens around and in the author's personal life, which brings reading books into his inner spiritual world, music, theater, meeting and talking with friends. Moreover, notebooks serve as a kind of "reserve" from which Vigny draws pre-considered ideas, themes, plots, images. There are many of them, but behind each note are long and non-trivial reflections that could lead to the creation of new works - poems, poems, dramas, novels” [Vigny A. de. Diary of a poet. Letters of Last Love, 2004: 400].

Less studied and accessible to the domestic reader is the epistolary heritage as a material for a biography. The main part of the correspondence of Romantic poets has not been translated into Russian, while in France great attention is paid to the epistolary heritage1. The importance of studying this source is indicated by A.A. Elistratov, believing that the correlation of the epistolary genre with other literary genres allows us to better imagine the romantic poet's point of view on the literary process. The letters themselves served as a kind of field for the authors of innovative literary experiments. The free genre of writing sometimes made it possible to express more naturally, more simply, more directly what is in poetry.

1 For the first time, the most complete archive of A. de Musset was published in] 907 by Leon Seche (Séché L. A. de Musset. Correspondance (1827-1857) -P., 1887. This edition included Musset's letters to J. Sand, drafts of songs French researchers Gonzaque Saint Bris Panorama de la poésie française, 1977, Pierre Laforgue) “To comprehend the 19th century, to write“ The Legend of the Ages ”(Penser le XIX siècle, écrire“ La légende des siècles ”, 2002), Alain Decaux“ Victor Hugo - the empire of writing ”(Victor Hugo -U empire de l "écriture, 2002).

The creative heritage of Vigny, Hugo and Musset is not equally represented in Russian and French literary criticism. It is necessary to dwell on studies of a general theoretical nature, which examine the history of European romanticism, in particular, French, the influence on its development of the traditions of German and English romanticism, European philosophy. These publications, first of all, should include "The History of World Literature: In 9 volumes, 1983-1994", educational publications for higher education in different years. It should be noted that at present the attitude towards the creative heritage of the Romantics is changing, the assessments given at one time to their work are being revised.

For the first time in Russia, the works of romantic poets were subjected to critical analysis in the articles of V. G. Belinsky, in which Hugo's work was highly appreciated and Vigny's works were undeservedly criticized. This point of view on the work of the French romantics was subsequently supported by the articles of M. Gorky and became official for Soviet literary criticism. To a certain extent, the same position can be traced in the studies of 1950-1970, including the study of D.D. Oblomievsky "French Romanticism" (1947), in the monograph by M.S. Treskunov "Victor Hugo" (1961), in the course of lectures on foreign literature by N.Ya. Berkovsky, read in 1971-1972. and in many other works.

Of particular importance is the publication of a textbook for higher education “The History of European Literature. XIX century: France, Italy, Spain, Belgium ”(2003), prepared for publication by a team of authors edited by T.V. Sokolova. This edition examines the most important features of the literary process of the 19th century in France, Italy, Spain and Belgium and, in particular, systematizes and generalizes a new approach to the study of French romanticism.

The largest number of monographs, articles, and studies in Russian literary criticism is devoted to Hugo's work, but it should be noted that Hugo was given special attention as a prose writer, author of historical novels, and playwright. French researchers, however, assign a paramount role to the poetic heritage of the romantic.

Vigny's work, interpreted for a long time as "reactionary" and "passive", was opposed to the "progressive" and "revolutionary" work of Hugo. In domestic literary criticism, Musset is devoted to a very small number of works. Basically, these are studies that address the issues of the novel "Confessions of the Son of the Century" and the poetry collection "May Night". Oriental motifs in Musset's work and the influence of the Byronic tradition can be traced in the works of T.V. Sokolova.

Of the pre-revolutionary publications devoted to French romanticism, of particular importance are the romantic readings of N. Kotlyarevsky, who was one of the first to draw attention to the image of the Medieval world in the work of Hugo, his interest and "love" in Gothic, which, according to Kotlyarevsky, manifested itself even in the form ballads. It should be noted that the problem of the influence of the traditions of medieval literature on the work of romantics became the subject of attention of criticism and the literary environment of the authors themselves as early as the 30s of the 19th century. V. G. Belinsky, V. A. Zhukovsky wrote about this. Later, this problem was reflected in the studies of the XX century.

The problem of the influence of medieval literature is connected with the romantic concept of society, the philosophy of history. The work of domestic and foreign authors, which touch upon certain aspects of the literature of the 19th century, served as an essential support for the study conducted in this dissertation. So, in the monograph by D.D. Oblomievsky, one should single out the problem of the attitude of French romantics to the historical past, the culture of past centuries, religion, and philosophy. The study of the work of romantics is impossible without referring to the principles of romantic historiography. Among the most significant works on this topic are the works of B. G. Reizov "The French Historical Novel in the Age of Romanticism" (1958), "History and Theory of Literature" (1986), "French Romantic Historiography" (1956). The last work characterizes the historical thought of the 1820s, reveals its role in the development of the new aesthetics of romanticism. Particular attention is paid to how the ideas of the Restoration historians were embodied in the work of romantic writers. In the monograph "The French Historical Novel in the Age of Romanticism" B.G. Reizov studied in detail the influence of V. Scott's work on the depiction of historical events by French romantics.

In the study by V.P. Trykov "French Literary Portrait of the 19th Century" (1999) emphasizes the role of the French Romantics in the context of the French literary portrait. Of the works of the last decade, the monograph “The Phenomenon of Art in German Romantic Prose: The Medieval Model and Its Destruction” (1997) by D.L.

The very first critics of Hugo's work were his contemporaries - the authors of the magazine "Senacle". Literature about his work is represented by a huge number of monographs, articles, romanticized biographies. The beginning of research on Hugo was laid by his contemporaries, and the last surge of such publications refers to the 200th anniversary of the poet, including the publication of a kind of chronicle of Hugo's work, compiled by a team of authors: A. Decaux (A. Decaux), G. Saint Breeze (G Saint Bris).

Of particular importance are the works of the 19th - the first half of the 20th century, which considered a wide range of problems related to the history of romanticism and the poetic work of Hugo, Musset, Vigny. French researchers B. Buri (V. de Buri) "Reflections on Romanticism and Romantics" (Idées sur le romantisme et les romantiques, 1881) and F. Brunetère (F. Brunetère) "The Evolution of Lyric Poetry" (Evolution de la poésie lyrique, 1894) saw the main feature of romanticism in the mixture of various genres. Monograph P. JIaccepa (P. Lasser) "French Romanticism" (Le romantisme français, 1907) is devoted to the philosophical and aesthetic aspects of the works of French romantics. The biographies of romantics of different generations are presented in detail in the work of Jules Bertaut "The Romantic Age" (L "époque romantique, 1914), and an extensive study by Pierre Moreau (P. Moreau) "Romanticism" (Le romantisme, 1932) highlights different periods of French romanticism from "Senacle" to "Parnassus".

In the monograph by F. de La Barthe "Investigations in the field of romantic poetics and style" (1908), much attention is paid to the philosophical views, attitude to religion of Chateaubriand, Lamartine, Vigny, Hugo, Musset, the author dwells in detail on the influence of German philosophy on French literature . In the work of A. Bizet "The Historical Development of the Sense of Nature" (Die Entwickelung des Naturgefuhls, 1903), translated by D. Korobchevsky and published in the supplement to the journal "Russian Wealth", the "naive" and romantic perception of nature by medieval authors and romantic poets was considered , in particular, the perception of wildlife as the greatest creation of God by Hugo.

Deep studies of the French epic genre are contained in the works of J. Bédier “From the origins of chanson de gesture” (De la formation des chansons de geste, 1912), P. Zumptor (P. Zumthor) “The experience of building medieval poetics” ( Essai de poétique médievale, 1972), A.A. Smirnova (Early Middle Ages, 1946), A.D. Mikhailova (French heroic epic: Questions of poetics and stylistics, 1995), M.K. Sabaneeva (Artistic language of the French epic, 2001).

When analyzing romantic ballads in French literature in the context of ballads from other European countries, we used the studies of A.N. Veselovsky (Historical poetics, 1989), V.F. Shishmareva (Selected Articles. French Literature, 1965), O.J1. Moshchanskaya (Folk Ballad of England (Robin Hood Cycle), 1967), Folk Poetry of England in the Middle Ages, 1988), A.A. Gugnina (Aeolian harp, 1989), G.K. Kosikova (Villon, 1999). However, it should be noted that there are no works devoted to a comparative analysis of the romantic ballads of Vigny, Hugo, Musset.

The most complete collection of author's ballads in French is presented in Histoire de la langue et de la littérature française (History of Language and French Literature, 1870), and the poetic heritage of Christine of Pisa in Old French is reflected in the multi-volume edition Oeuvres poétiques de Christine de Pisan "(Poetic works of Christina of Pisa, 1874).

It should be noted the increased interest in the Middle Ages and its influence on subsequent literary eras in French literary criticism. The major work on medieval France by M. de Marchangy “Tristan the Traveler or France in the 11th Century” (Tristan le voyageur, ou La France au XIV siècle, 1825) remains of current importance. This multi-volume study contains a description of the life, customs, traditions, religion of medieval France, excerpts from literary works: mysteries, songs, ballads, historical chronicles.

It was the materials of this study that were borrowed by many romantics. So, for the ballad "The Horn", Vigny used a little-known version of the death of Roland, presented in this edition. An increased interest in the Middle Ages and the genres of medieval literature was reflected in the reprints of epic works and chivalric novels: F. Ferrier (F. Ferrier) "Tristan and Isolde" (Tristan et Yseut, 1994), G. Favier (G. Favier) "Around Roland (Autour de Roland, 2005). Of interest are publications devoted to the significance of medieval literature for the art of modern times: M. Populer "Religious culture of secular people at the end of the medieval period" (La culture religieuse des laïcs à la fin du Moyen Age, 1996).

In French literary criticism, interest in the work of French romantics is growing. In recent years, the following articles have been published: A. Decaux (A. Decaux) "Musset, reader Hugo" (Musset, lecteur de Hugo, 2001), which compares oriental motifs in the works of Hugo and Musset; A. Encausse (H.Encausse) "Victor Hugo and the Academy: Romantics of the French Academy" (Victor Hugo et L "Académie: Les romantiques sous la Coupole, 2002), which is dedicated to Hugo's public performances at the Academy, B. Poirot-Delpesh (V . Poirot-Delpech) in the publication "Hugo, with "est le culot réhabilité" analyzes the perception of Hugo's heritage by the modern young generation, according to the author of the article, "for Hugo there is neither age nor ropH30HTa".

An analysis of the poetic work of romantic poets, literary manifestos, diaries and epistolary heritage allows us to talk about the influence of medieval culture on their poetic work. In our study, we turn to Vigny's collection "Poems on Ancient and Modern Subjects", Hugo's collection "Odes and Ballads", Musset's New Poems cycle. F. Villon's ballads and songwriting are fragmentarily studied in this work as a poetic context.

The purpose of our work is not to study the history of translations in Russia, but we consider it important for the most complete analysis of the work of French romantics to provide, along with the original French text, interlinear and poetic translations. It should be noted that Russian translations of romantic French poetry began at the end of the 19th century; translations of Hugo V.T. Benediktov (1807-1873), S.F.Durova (1816-1869), A.A. Grigoriev (1822-1864); translations by Vigny V. Kurochkin, translations by Musset, made by I.S. Turgenev and D.D. Limaev. Noteworthy is the collection of translations of French poetry, carried out by V.Ya. Bryusov in 1909.

The relevance of the dissertation research topic is determined by the growing interest that is observed in modern European literary criticism to the epoch of the 19th century and the poetic heritage of Hugo, Vigny and Musset. Their work is considered inextricably linked with the context of the era. The influence of medieval poetry on French romanticism seems to be one of the most important impulses received by romanticism in the process of its formation and development.

The scientific novelty of the work lies in posing the problem of the reception of medieval literature in relation to French romanticism, as well as in determining the chosen aspect in which the creative heritage of Hugo, Vigny and Musset has not yet been considered in either domestic or foreign literary criticism. Conceptually important for the study was the historical and literary context, which unites and separates the romantics. In this work, the romantic ballads of Hugo and Vigny are considered for the first time. The dissertation examines the specifics of the interpretation of biblical material in romantic poetry. Material is introduced into scientific circulation that illuminates the work of not one, but three romantic poets, giving a comparative and contrastive analysis of poetic works, including works that have been fragmentarily studied in Russian literary criticism to date: these are the mysteries of Vigny and Hugo's poems on biblical plots, untranslated and draft versions of works are used.

The object of the study is the features of the reception of medieval literature in romantic poetry.

The subject of the study is the poetic works of V. Hugo, A. de Vigny and A. de Musset, which reflect the traditions of medieval literature.

The theoretical and methodological basis of the work is the cultural-historical approach to the study of the literary process, as well as the historical-typological method of research. It is their systemic interconnectedness that makes it possible to study the poetic work of the Romantics in multidimensional connections with the era, in the conditionality of the historical situation, in comparison with other phenomena of the cultural process. The works of the greatest importance for us were: A.D. Mikhailova, B.G. Reizova, C.B. Kotlyarevsky, A.N. Veselovsky, A.Ya. Gurevich. They present research not only in the field of poetics and literary theory, but also in its history. Numerous studies by O.JI have been devoted to the problem of the evolution of genres. Moshchanskaya, T.V. Sokolova, D.L. Chavchanidze. Elements of the biographical method made it possible to productively study the diaries and letters of poets.

The aim of the work is to study the influence of medieval literature on the poetry of French romanticism. To achieve the goal, the following tasks were set:

To determine the role of historicism in romantic poetry, which, on the one hand, allows us to identify common features in the works of these authors that are characteristic of the aesthetics of French romanticism, and on the other hand, to determine the individual features that reflect the worldview of each of the poets;

Consider the most "open" genres of romantic poetry for the medieval tradition;

To identify the specifics of the medieval ballad tradition and its revival in romanticism, both in terms of identifying the individual characteristics of the ballad genre in the poetry of these authors, and in terms of establishing general trends in the evolution of the French ballad;

To trace the evolution of the ballad genre in the romantic poetry of the 19th century;

Consider the features of the genre of "mystery" in the Middle Ages;

Determine the specifics of the genre of mystery in the poetry of the romantics;

Consider the interpretation of biblical stories in the poems of Hugo, Vigny, Musset as a reflection of their philosophical views.

Research sources: the main material of the research was the literary-critical, historical and epistolary heritage of Hugo, Vigny and Musset.

The scientific and practical significance of the study lies in the fact that its results can be used in the development of general courses on the history of foreign literature of the 19th century, cultural studies, and in the creation of educational and methodological literature on French romanticism.

Approbation of work. The main provisions of the dissertation were presented in the form of reports and communications at the following scientific conferences: XV Purishev Readings (Moscow, 2002); Problems of the language picture of the world at the present stage (Nizhny Novgorod, 2002-2004); Session of young scientists. Humanities (Nizhny Novgorod, 2003-2007); Russian-Foreign Literary Relations (Nizhny Novgorod, 2005-2007). 11 papers have been published on the topic of the dissertation.

The structure of the work: the dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography consisting of 316 sources (104 of them in French).

Conclusion of scientific work thesis on "Traditions of Medieval Literature in the Poetry of the French Romantics"

Conclusion

The study allows us to conclude that the romantic poetry of V. Hugo, A. de Vigny and A. de Musset was significantly influenced by medieval literature. Plots, genre specifics, and poetics inherent in a medieval work of art contributed to the formation of a romantic artistic system. Romantic poets filled the poetic forms adopted from the Middle Ages with a new, modern content, while maintaining creative subjectivism. In this regard, general trends in the perception of the traditions of medieval literature by three romantic poets were traced.

The creative individuality of each of them did not exclude either belonging to one literary movement - romanticism, or participating in the same publications: Globe, La Muse française, Revue des Deux Mondes. Having united in the literary circle "Senacle", they were at the same time readers, critics and listeners of each other. Important information, critical reviews of modern literature and each other's work are contained in the letters and diaries of romantic poets.

It should be noted that Musset, unlike Vigny and Hugo, belonged to a later generation of romantics. They created their works in general historical conditions and at the same time gave a different assessment of the same events from each other.

The appeal to the heritage of the Middle Ages is inextricably linked with the principle of historicism, which consists in a romantic depiction of past eras, customs and traditions of that time, historical persons and events in interaction with fiction and imagination.

Artistic truth in romantic literature was associated with a deep understanding of the era depicted by the author, in the ability to present its essence as a combination of reliable historical facts and fiction.

The formation of French historicism was particularly influenced by the ideas of German writers and thinkers: I. Herder, F. Schelling. Their ideas were not copied, but rethought into an aesthetic concept, the main goal of which was to form the French national tradition and revive medieval literature. Historicism was not just the main principle of romantic aesthetics, but also a means of strengthening national self-knowledge, awareness of the national and historical diversity of different cultures.

In the Romantic era, history was of great interest not only to historians, but also to artists of the word. History has become the philosophy of history and the history of philosophy. The influence of history was reflected in literature: romantic poetry continued the traditions of the genres of medieval literature, the novel became a historical novel.

The romantic renewal of literature manifested itself in the violation of strict genre regulation. Hugo included a ballad in the collection along with an ode, and Vigny's Poems on Ancient and Modern Subjects included both mysteries and ballads. Musset's collection "Spanish and Italian novels" also includes works that are diverse in their genre: poems, songs, sonnets.

Legends and tales, beliefs and customs, traditions and customs, psychology and beliefs of people who lived several centuries ago - all this merged among the romantics into the concept of "local color" (couleur locale). The ballads of Hugo and Vigny are filled with examples of historical color. To recreate the national flavor, the romantics studied folklore sources and legends. Interest in the cultural heritage of the past predetermined the publication of books: "The History of French Poetry of the XII-XIII centuries", "Romantic France" by C. Nodier and "Poetic Gaul" by C. Marchangy, in which the authors, using as illustrative material the texts of historical chronicles and old French ballads conveyed the historical atmosphere of medieval France. The Romantics followed the same technique in the historical novels: Saint-Map by Vigny and Notre-Dame de Paris by Hugo. These works recreate the local flavor of the era, thanks to a large number of topographic details, a detailed description of architectural structures and national costumes.

The appeal to the national poetic antiquity became possible thanks to W. Scott. The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, 1802-1803 collection includes old ballads with notes and detailed comments by the author. The influence of Scott's creative achievements for the French Romantics was manifested in the fact that the Romantic poets turned to national history, the traditions of the medieval ballad were continued in the poetry of Hugo and Vigny.

The ballad genre became widespread in the Middle Ages. In our study, we classified medieval ballads according to the nature of authorship and identified two types: the first type is anonymous folk ballads, which include anonymous songs and romances of the 12th century. The second type - author's, indicating a specific author, these include the poetic works of Bernard de Ventadorn (1140 - 1195), Jaufre Rudel (1140 - 1170), Bertrand de Born (1140 -1215), Peyre Vidal (1175 - 1215), Christina Pisa (1363 - 1389). But within the framework of the author's ballad, we singled out Villon's ballads and ballads of the "Viyon" type, since they occupied a special place among ballad poetry, and in France itself in the Middle Ages, the ballads were meant precisely the ballads of F. Villon. Their peculiarity is determined by Villon's attitude to the cultural and poetic tradition of the mature Middle Ages.

The subject of medieval ballads is extensive: military campaigns, unhappy love, but the main thing was the image of the Beautiful Lady, whose vassal the poet declared himself. Some events in the life of the heroes became known from their dialogue with relatives and friends. Many author's ballads were a story about unrequited love. The time of the narrative in most cases is present, connected with the episode in question: the vassal reports the death of his overlord, the girl is going through separation from her beloved, the unfortunate young man suffers from love for a beautiful lover. The song intonation of ballad works was manifested in the musicality of the verse. Poets used verse-to-verse transitions (enjambements), which brought poetry closer to the rhythms of lively colloquial speech. Song intonation, melodiousness were created by musical rhythms and repetitions.

Romantics, referring to the ballad genre, often used the term "ballad" in the titles of collections and individual works, but at the same time, the ballad was a new romantic genre for them. We classified the French literary ballad according to the characteristics of the content: historical, where it was about a historical event, for example, “King John's Tournament”, Hugo's “Wooing of Roland”, “Snow”, “Horn”, “Madame de Subise” by Vigny; fantastic, where the heroes of the work were fairy-tale characters, for example, "Fairy", "Dance of Witches" by Hugo; lyrical, where the center of the composition is the world of feelings of the characters, for example, "The Timpanist's Bride", Hugo's "Grandmother".

In these works depicting various historical events, the main features of the ballad genre are traced: a combination of epic, lyrical and dramatic elements, an appeal to the folklore-song tradition, sometimes compositions with a refrain. The words of the ballad chorus contained a hint of the content of the ballad or a lyrical digression that was not related to the content of the work.

The feudal order of social relations in the Middle Ages is shown in the ballad "The Tournament of King John" by Hugo, and the concept of forbidden love, when the plot is built around a young lover of the overlord's beautiful wife and a deceived husband, sounded again in "The Burgrave's Hunt". When comparing romantic ballads and medieval poetry, it was concluded that poets of the 19th century had a deep knowledge of French courtly lyrics. They used the names of historical and fictional characters to recreate the local flavor. The theme of love is the central theme of chivalric romances and ballad poetry. Serving the Beautiful Lady is characteristic of folklore ballads. The name of the beautiful Isolde was widespread in the Middle Ages. Isolde is the central character in the courtly novels "Tristan and Isolde" by Tom, "Honeysuckle" by Mary of France. Like a medieval beauty, the heroine of a romantic ballad has blond hair, she is the most beautiful and always excites the heart of the hero. In the ballads of Hugo and in the songs of Musset, the image of a beautiful beloved was preserved, romantic, like medieval troubadours, they always kept her name in secret.

Although the ballad genre was not directly related to the song, it acquired common features in the work of romantics (plot structure, chorus, anonymity of the addressee, psychologism). The theme of love also became a compositional and content element in Musset's songs: "Andalusian", "Song of Fortunio".

Fragments of the legendary "Song of Roland" were used in the poetry of Hugo and Vigny, while both in Vigny's ballad "The Horn" and in Hugo's poem "Roland's Courtship" a new interpretation of the medieval epic was given. The image of Roland in romantic poems was central, as in the heroic epic, he is an example of chivalrous prowess and nobility, but the romantics also brought their own nuances. If the heroic epic emphasized Roland's patriotism and his knightly duty, then in the romantic ballad Hugo focused on the knight's courage and fearlessness, and for Vigny's hero, the main thing was to follow the code of knightly honor.

In addition to the ballad genre, romantics also turned to mystery. We have considered the medieval mysteries of the X-XN centuries. "Action about Adam", "The Mystery of the Passion of the Lord". Mystery in the Middle Ages is a drama based on stories from the Bible, in which the deeds of the saints were glorified and the wisdom of biblical stories was revealed. Vigny also called the works mysteries, but in later editions they are called poems. For example, "Eloa", "Flood". The blurring of genre boundaries, the mixing of lyrical and dramatic principles reflected one of the features of romanticism, namely, the movement towards a free genre. A special role in the mysteries of Vigny belonged to the monologues of the heroes (Eloa and Lucifer, Sarah and Emmanuel), which contained the author's worldview and his attitude to religious dogmas.

Vigny's works on the biblical story are significantly removed from the original source, the author made inaccuracies and digressions in order to emphasize his thought, which most often does not coincide with the traditional interpretation of Holy Scripture. Biblical texts became the basis of the poems "The Daughter of Jephthah", "Moses", "The Mount of Olives", "The Wrath of Samson", but all of them are imbued with deep skepticism. Vigny's image of God is far from Christian doctrine; the romantic described him as harsh, cruel, ruthless.

Hugo's poems also reflected biblical allusions: "Glorification of a woman", "God", "Christ's first meeting with the tomb", "Sleeping Boaz", "Conscience". Hugo rethought the plots and characters of the Old and New Testaments, but in most cases he followed the chronology of biblical events.

Vigny's skepticism and Hugo's pantheism are associated with "neopaganism", a movement that arose as a religious reaction to the events of 1830. The followers of this movement expressed doubts about religious dogmas and rejected Christian doctrine in general.

Religious views of Musset are not as bright as those of other romantics. God-fighting motives in his work are reflected in the poem "Hope in God". Musset compared the logical, moral and aesthetic interpretation of ideas about God. The author emphasized the close religious connection between mankind and the Creator. Romantic mysteries and poems were an example of the rethinking of Christian myths and biblical stories.

The Romantic era is marked by a special interest in antiquity, as evidenced by numerous historical reminiscences in literature. The reconstruction of the historical past takes place within the framework of literature and art in general. Samples of the medieval heritage served as material for the romantics. The connection of the Romantic era with the Middle Ages is organic, figurative plot constructions are reduced not to complete imitation, but to a new poetic sound. Plots and symbolism, poetic formulas, characteristic of a medieval work, were filled with modern content in romanticism.

The dissertation reflects non-traditional points of view on certain aspects of French romanticism. The study of the principle of romantic historicism was carried out not within the framework of a historical novel, but on the material of poetry. Consideration of the motives of biblical imagery in the works of romantics of different generations on the example of works on biblical subjects made it possible to reflect the worldview of the romantics. Thus, the study made it possible to reveal the influence of medieval literature on the poetry of French romantics: Hugo, Vigny and Musset. Turning to the heritage of the Middle Ages, these authors enriched their work in ideological, artistic, philosophical, aesthetic terms, made a significant contribution to the history of French and European literature of the Romantic era.

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/ 4
The worst Best

Description of the mirror relationship between Dumas and Hugo from Vera Stratievskaya

Dumas - Hugo

In this dyad, two dynamic values ​​"compete": the aspect of the ethics of emotions - the program of Hugo and the aspect of the sensory of sensations - the program of Dumas.

Despite some similarity of views and opinions, each of the partners ascribes paramount importance to its program aspect.

EGO level, channel 1 - 2.
Hugo is annoyed by Dumas's ethical manipulativeness, his diplomacy, ethical maneuverability, resourcefulness, conformism. And on the other hand, just like Hugo, Dumas requires increased attention, sincerity, empathy, especially during his physical overload, illness and malaise. In this dyad, they talk a lot and argue a lot about sensitivity and sincerity, but each of the partners perceives the manifestation of sincerity through their program aspects. If Hugo can simply complain that Dumas does not have the patience to listen to him, or that Dumas often takes offense at him, or does not understand, then Dumas expresses his claims through the sensory aspect of sensations: he complains about the lack of help, guardianship, care in relation to to himself: “After all, he sees that I come tired, fall off my feet - no, to help, at least clean up after myself. It also requires sensitivity. Yes, it seems how I look after him ... but where will he find another such wife.

Dumas' sensitivity is manifested in his sensory concern for his partner. (Care is primary, sincerity is secondary). Hugo, on the contrary, who he loves more, cares about more. Unlike Dumas, Hugo can have guests of “first, second or even third grade”, (“first, second and third freshness” - what the welcome guest has not eaten, they feed it to a random visitor, “so that the good does not disappear”). Dumas does not approve of such “guardianship”, especially if a person close to him is a “casual visitor”, and a friend of Hugo is a “welcome guest”. Dumas can be shocked by Hugo's reservations like: "I saved fresh bread for the table, but for now you finish eating stale bread." Or Dumas may be offended by Hugo's attempts to feed him some “production waste”: “She burnt a few pies with cabbage, so she put them on a plate for me - treats. But I can see what she has on the baking sheet. Okay, cut off the burnt crust, eat. So she pokes a finger at me in this crust: “Why don’t you eat it up?”. At this point, I explode, do I have a stomach or a garbage dump?!”

On the basis of such sensory and ethical “misunderstandings” in this dyad, there are a lot of disagreements, since these are all important aspects for both partners.

SUPEREGO level, channel 3-4.
In practical matters, there will also be many disagreements here. Dumas will be annoyed by Hugo's pettiness and pettiness. Hugo will make the same claims to Dumas, and in addition he will reproach him for wastefulness and inability to spend money on what is needed. Partners will constantly conflict about this, they will constantly accuse each other of impracticality and wastefulness, and not one of them will agree to moderate their needs and will not allow them to save on it: “You have ten pairs of shoes, and why should I be smaller?!”

There will be constant arguments in the house about who takes on the most work, who works more and gets tired more. “I turn around at two jobs, and also cut hair, and sheathe, and I still have to do everything around the house ?!”

As is often the case with two sensorics, constant disputes about the distribution of responsibilities lead to the fact that everything is pushed onto the partner and no one wants to put a hand on anything at all. (“What, do I need more than anyone else? Can I plow on me?”) And here Hugo’s normative operational logic “conflicts” with a similar aspect of Dumas, who is in the positions of the mobilization function, in the so-called “zone of fear”. (For all his capacity for work, Dumas is very afraid of overworking, afraid of seeming impractical "inept").

The problematic aspect of the intuition of time for both partners will also cause them a lot of trouble. Hugo, with his constant feverish haste, will annoy Dumas' ability to steal other people's time: “Here he sat down and now he sits and talks, does not see what time it is, does not think that others have to get up for work tomorrow ...”

Conversely, the slow Dumas, with his normative intuition of time, will be annoyed by Hugo's vanity and alarmism, his chronic impatience and ability to provoke everyone and everyone to premature actions. All this useless fuss will tire Dumas, cause him a feeling of psychological discomfort. Dumas will want to move away from Hugo, which will cause even more panic.

SUPERID level, channel 5 - 6.
Each of the partners, tired of the messy fuss or inadequate behavior of his “mirror”, will want to see at least some logic in his actions, at least some order, but he will not see anything like that there. Therefore, each of them will make claims to the partner in the confusion and inconsistency of his behavior. “Well, you tell me, why is she playing the fool?” Dumas says about Hugo. “He agrees, agrees with me in everything, says: “Now I will only listen to you!” But nothing has changed!”

The problem is that here each of the partners has to be more reasonable than the other, which is equally difficult for both of them. Noticing that Hugo is inspired by logical arguments (promises to obey him in everything), Dumas subconsciously tries to give him information very clearly, intelligibly, sorted out. Considering his partner to be stupider than himself, Dumas, against his background, tries to be smarter and more prudent. The aspect of the logic of correlations in Hugo is at the “point of absolute weakness”, therefore he does not hide his shortcomings in this aspect, he is ready to recognize anyone smarter than himself, especially if this will help him improve relations with his partner. (Hugo's logical manipulativeness). Dumas, although he does not consider himself a sufficiently reasonable person, nevertheless understands that it is he who must set some kind of logical order in the partner’s reasoning, and the realization of this makes him very active. (Someone of the two must be smarter!)

Something similar happens with another aspect, which both “mirrors” have at the superid level – with the aspect of intuition of possibilities. Here already Hugo feels more relaxed and tries to activate Dumas, who feels weak and inhibited in this area. And although none of the partners consider themselves worthless mediocrity, none of them can adequately assess their abilities or see some exceptional opportunities for themselves - for this, each of them needs the help of an intuitive.

ID level, channel 7 - 8.
As in any dyad, consisting of two ethics, the showdown here is a common thing, not a single day can do without it. Moreover, Hugo starts this ethical “showdown”, his observant, principled ethics of relations comes into conflict with the demonstrative and diplomatic ethics of Dumas. Hugo “aggravates” the relationship, trying to dot the “i”, Dumas tries to smooth out the conflict, trying to get away from a direct answer, tries to transfer the conversation to the sensory aspect of sensations, to some of his specific good deeds.

However, Hugo does not consider himself the instigator of the conflict, he starts this clarification in order to improve relations. “Don’t be offended by me, you are offended by me in vain!” he assures Dumas. “I don’t demand anything like that from you, I wish you well!” Dumas also wishes Hugo well, and therefore recalls in what, specifically, his goodness is manifested. So they run from the ethical aspect to the sensory one, and as a result, everyone remains in their own opinion.

Similar skirmishes also take place on the aspect of volitional sensory. Dumas' observant volitional sensory tries to slow down and adjust Hugo's demonstrative assertiveness. Dumas does not allow anyone to put pressure on him, and Hugo does not understand the motives for this opposition, they do not understand what he is specifically accused of, and what he said. What for Hugo is a free and natural manifestation of his initiative, Dumas perceives as the suppression of his personality, as an infringement of his personal rights and freedoms. And having come to such an opinion, Dumas begins to experience psychological discomfort himself and begins to create sensory discomfort for his partner (begins to “fond”). Hugo, sensitively catching this discomfort, perceives it as a personal insult, bursts into another emotional jolt, which Dumas takes on his diplomatic ethics, and, once again reminding him of his kind attitude towards his partner, tries to smooth out this conflict. If this fails, he will emotionally discharge himself on his partner, so that next time he would not be scandalous.

The communication between Hugo and Dumas from the outside looks like alternating outbursts of anger - a sort of small tantrums - scandals, interspersed with a peaceful discussion of culinary recipes and mutual reminders of who, to whom, how much good he did and how he was repaid for it.