Russian culture in the 14th early 16th century. Russian culture of the XIV - early XVI centuries

The Mongol-Tatar yoke dealt a unique blow to the development of Russian culture. There is a decline in various spheres of culture.

Destroyed:

Monuments of Russian architecture;

writing;

Stone building stopped;

Some types of crafts have disappeared.

From the second halfIn the 14th century, a gradual rise in Russian culture began. The leading theme in culture was the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land and the struggle against the foreign yoke.

For the epic epic characterized by an appeal to the era of independence. A new genre of oral folk art is being formed - history chesky song. The advent of paper made available books.

A special influence on the development of Russian literature rendered Kulikovo battle. Works dedicated to the Battle of Kulikovo: "Zadonshchina", "The Legend of Mamaev's Massacre" - were very popular in Russia.

At the beginning of the 15th century, the first all-Russian chronicle code appeared - Trinity chronicle.

The Moscow princes paid great attention to the compilation of chronicles, which contributed to the unification of the lands.

In the middle of the 15th century, World History was compiled with brief information on the history of Russia - Russian chronograph.

Outcome: many works of art appear in Russia, talented masters from other countries move here to live and create.

In the XIV-XV centuries, great development was painting.

Painting masters:

Theophanes the Greek(He worked in Novgorod, Moscow. Famous works: painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyinka, the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin, the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin and others).

Andrey Rublev(worked in Moscow. Famous works: painting of the Annunciation Cathedral, the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, frescoes and icons of the Trinity Cathedral, the famous icon "Trinity").

Outcome: the manner of painting by two talented masters had a strong influence on subsequent generations of Russian artists.

Stone architecture revived very slowly. The traditions of regional architectural schools continued to develop. In 1367, white stone walls were erected the Kremlin later used red; brick.

At the beginning of the 15th century, the Assumption Cathedral and the Cathedral of the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery in Zvenigorod, the Church of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Cathedral of the Andronnikov Monastery in Moscow were built.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries, the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin was created.

Russian culture late XV - early XVI develops under the sign of the state unification of the country and the strengthening of its independence.

The official ideology of the Russian state is being developed. At the beginning of the 16th century, the idea was put forward "Moscow- third Rome".The essence of the theory:

Rome - the ever-existing kingdom - passes from one country to another;

Rome perished - a second Rome appeared - Byzantium;

Byzantium died - it was replaced Moscow(third Rome);

There will be no fourth Rome.

AT "Tales of the Princes of Vladimir" reflected political theory of the origin of the Russian state: Moscow-sky princes- direct descendants of the Roman Emperor Augustus.

The Church ideologically substantiates the need to strengthen the centralized state. The church is fiercely persecuting heresy.

One of the most widespread genres of oral folk art has become history song:

- the struggle of Ivan the Terrible with the boyars was sung;

Yermak's campaign in Siberia;
- the capture of Kazan;

The literature of that time is characterized journalism in the form of messages and letters.

The largest event in the history of Russian culture was the emergence of printing.

In 1553, the publication of books began in Moscow.
1564 Ivan Fedorov and Petr Mstislavets(published the first printed book "Apostle")

In the second half of the 16th century, about 20 large printed books were published in Russia.

A grandiose event in architectural construction was the construction of a new Kremlin. Italian architect Fioravanti(Assumption Cathedral);

During this period, Kremlins were built in other cities: Novgorod, Tula,Kolomna.

Church in the village Kolomenskoye was built with elements of wooden architecture;

In 1560 Russian architects Barma and Postnik completed the construction of St. Basil's Cathedral (dazzled). The tent style appeared in church construction.

Painting represented by paintings of temples and iconography. The most outstanding master was Dionysius.

The most famous works:

Icon of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin;

Painting of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Ferapontov Monastery;

End periodXV-XVI centuries is characterized by the accumulation 1 theoretical and practical knowledge in the field of mathematics and mechanics.

Traveler Afanasy Nikitin collected valuable geographic information - "Journey beyond three seas".

Maps of the territory of the Russian state appear. Foundry begins to develop:

The State Cannon Yard began to operate;

Master Andrey Chokhov cast Tsar Cannon(weight 40 tons).

Outcome. The creation of a centralized state, a fierce struggle against heresies and free thought led to the state's strict control over all forms of art.

From the 14th century the revival of Russian culture begins, due to the liberation of Russian lands from the Horde yoke, the formation of the Russian centralized state and the success of economic development. Gradually, a common Russian culture begins to take shape.

Literature

In the XIV-XV centuries. most of the chronicles are compiled in Moscow monasteries, the Gospels, the lives of the saints, and teachings are copied. The development and strengthening of the Russian state was accompanied by the strengthening of the positions of the church in all spheres of spiritual life. In the XVI century. the ideological activity of the church acquired a wide scope. The Church launched a struggle against all kinds of dissent, established a strict regulation of all spiritual life. The Church followed the correct understanding of the teachings of Christ, severely punished freethinkers-heretics.

Painting

Russian painting in the XIV-XV centuries. reached unprecedented heights. Man and his spiritual world is the central theme of Russian painting.

Was a great artist Theophanes the Greek, who arrived from Byzantium in the 70s of the XIV century. to Novgorod. Only the “Deesis” icons in the Annunciation Cathedral have survived to our time.

Andrey Rublev- the most famous and revered master of the Moscow school of icon painting, book and monumental painting of the XV century. Rublev created his masterpiece - the icon "The Life-Giving Trinity" (Tretyakov Gallery).

Dionysius- the leading Moscow icon painter of the late XV - early XVI centuries. It is considered the successor of the traditions of Andrei Rublev. The most famous works of Dionysius are the wall paintings and the iconostasis of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Mother of God of the Ferapontov Monastery, made by the master together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir.

Also XIV-XV became a period of development of book miniatures.

book business

Centers of literacy and education in the XVI century. there were monasteries, churches where schools were created, there were libraries of handwritten and printed books. Until the middle of the XVI century. All books in Russia were written by hand. With 1553 Russian printing begins. AT April 1564 clerk Ivan Fedorov published the first Russian dated printed book "Apostle" (on the activities of the disciples of Christ). This was followed by the Book of Hours and other books that were distinguished by a high level of printing.

Architecture

AT 1485 The construction of new Kremlin walls and towers began. Civil construction is being developed, a number of buildings are being built in the Kremlin - chambers, the most famous of which is the Faceted Chamber (1487-1496). The most famous architectural monument of this period is St. Basil's Cathedral, the construction of which continued in 1554-1560.

13. "Time of Troubles" at the beginning of the 17th century.

Time of Troubles (1598-1613) in the history of the Fatherland is characterized by the weakness of state power and the insubordination of the outskirts to the center, imposture, civil war and intervention, "the great devastation of the Muscovite state."

Causes of unrest: 1. interrupted the family of Rurikovich 2. early 17th century was a disaster for Russia (hunger, general discontent, people begin to leave their native villages to travel around the country) 3. oprichnina, who showed the people their lack of rights before the arbitrariness of power

After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible (1584) throne inherited his son Fedor (1584-1598)- A person incapable of ruling. All power was in the hands of his brother-in-law, Boris Godunov.

The beginning of the turmoil was laid by the death of the son of Ivan the Terrible Dmitry. After the death of Fyodor, Boris Godunov was elected tsar by the Zemsky Sobor. With his death, the Rurik dynasty on the Moscow throne ended.

AT 1601 - an impostor is announced in Poland False Dmitry (Grigory Otrepiev) posing as the son of Ivan the Terrible.

AT 1605 Having betrayed Boris (his death), the boyars swore allegiance to False Dmitry, who began to reign.

AT 1606 during the uprising, False Dmitry was killed. On the throne Vasily Shuisky. The strengthening of serfdom, the instability and arbitrariness of the feudal lords caused an uprising of peasants, serfs.

1606 -First Peasants' War. The main reasons: the process of enslavement, instability and unrest in power structures. Ivan Bolotnikov-the head of the uprising of peasants and serfs from Putivl moved to Moscow.

Summer 1607., when the army of Ivan Bolotnikov besieged Tula, a second impostor appeared in Starodub, posing as Tsarevich Dmitry ( False Dmitry II). False Dmitry II achieved some success.

AT June 1608 False Dmitry II approached Moscow, many nobles and government officials who were dissatisfied with Shuisky's rule moved to Tushino. A dual power was established in the country. In fact, there were two tsars in Russia, two Boyar Dumas, two systems of orders. There was a palace coup in Moscow.

Tsar Vasily July 17, 1610 was dethroned. After the overthrow of Shuisky, an interregnum began in Moscow. Power passed into the hands of the boyars, who soon swore allegiance to the Polish prince Vladislav, in September 1610 The Poles entered the capital.

Part of the Russian cities did not support the Poles, the country split into two camps. Period from 1610 to 1613 went down in history as "seven boyars"- by the number of boyars who led the "Russian" party.

A powerful popular anti-Polish movement is rising in the country and in 1611 a people's militia is formed, besieging Moscow. The militia was led by the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov. Due to a contradiction in the government of I, the militia disintegrated, but the very next year a second militia was formed in Nizhny Novgorod. His headman Kuzma Minin in September 1611 urged fellow citizens to help the Muscovite state. The head of the zemstvo militia invited the stolnik and voivode prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky. AT October the militias stormed Moscow and the Poles capitulated.

AT January 1613 The Zemsky Sobor was convened at which a new tsar was elected. Largely thanks to Patriarch Filaret, they put him in the kingdom Mikhail Romanov who was 16 at the time. The power of the new tsar was significantly limited by the boyars and the Zemsky Sobor, without whose blessing the tsar could not make the most important decisions.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE GREAT TROUBLE:

It is very difficult to assess the significance of the Time of Troubles for the fate of our state. The immediate events of this period led to global economic ruin and impoverishment of the country. The consequence of the turmoil was that Russia lost part of its lands, which were to be returned with great losses: Smolensk, western Ukraine, Kola Peninsula. For an indefinite period, one could forget about access to the sea, and hence about trade with Western Europe. The strongly weakened Russian state was surrounded by strong enemies in the face of Poland and Sweden, the Crimean Tatars revived. On the other hand, the role of the people in the expulsion of the Polish-Swedish interventionists, the accession of the new Romanov dynasty (1613-1917) - rallied society, the self-consciousness of the Russian people rose to a qualitatively new level.

As a result of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, severe damage was inflicted on material and cultural values. A sharp increase in the disunity of the Russian lands from the middle of the 13th century made itself felt, which negatively affected the development of Russian culture. Immediately after the establishment of the Horde dominion in Russia, the construction of stone buildings was temporarily stopped.

THE ART OF A NUMEROUS ARTISTIC CRAFTS WAS LOST.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, local centers of chronicle writing, as well as literary art schools, were formed. During the Mongol-Tatar yoke, some of these traditions were preserved, which created the basis for a future cultural upsurge by the end of the 14th century. In addition, the struggle for state integrity and independence brought together the cultures of different lands, as well as the culture of the elite and the people. Despite the fact that many cultural works died, many appeared.

Having joined the system of world trade relations through the Golden Horde, Russia adopted a number of cultural achievements of the countries of the East, the technology of manufacturing various objects, architectural achievements and general cultural ones.

On the other hand, the Mongol-Tatar invasion influenced the rise of Moscow as the center of the unification of Russia. And gradually the all-Russian culture began to take shape on the basis of the culture of Vladimir Rus.

CHRONICLE

Starting from the second half of the 13th century, chronicle writing was gradually restored in the Russian lands. Its main centers remained the Principality of Galicia-Volyn, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, Ryazan, and from about 1250 Vladimir. There are also new centers Moscow, Tver.

Since the second half of the 14th century, the compilation of chronicles and handwritten books has experienced a significant rise. The leading place is gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicle tradition with its ideas of uniting the lands around Moscow. The Moscow chronicle tradition has come down to us as part of the Trinity Chronicle at the beginning of the 15th century and, unlike local chronicles, is the first collection of an all-Russian character since the time of Ancient Russia, here the right of the princes of Moscow to be the head of Russia is justified.

> In the middle of the 15th century, a brief world history appeared - the chronograph.

ORAL FOLK CREATIVITY OF RUSSIA

At the same time, the most important genre of literature in the 13th century, which received dynamic development, was oral folk art: epics, songs, legends, military stories. They reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and about the world around them.

The first cycle of epics is a refinement and revision of the old cycle of epics about the Kievan state.

The second cycle of epics— Novgorod. It glorifies the wealth, power, love of freedom of the free city, as well as the courage of the townspeople in protecting the city from enemies.

> The main characters are Sadko, Vasily Buslaevich.

Other genres appear in the 14th century and are dedicated to understanding the Mongol conquest. Tale-tales: about the battle on the Kalka River, about the rose garden of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, as well as about the defender of Smolensk - the young Smolyanin Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Virgin from the Mongol troops. Part of the works of this cycle was included in the annalistic vaults.

LITERATURE OF RUSSIA

In the tradition of lamentation it is written "A word about the destruction of the Russian land"(only the first part survived). The ideas of national liberation and patriotism are also reflected in works dedicated to the northwestern borders of the Russian land: "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky". A number of hagiographic works are dedicated to the princes who died in the horde. This is life of Mikhail Chernigov. The princes are presented in these works as defenders of the Orthodox faith and Russia.

Military story Zadonshchina, compiled, it is believed, by Safony Ryazan, modeled on a word about Igor's regiment.

> Images, literary style, individual turns, expressions were borrowed from here. It does not report a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings from what happened. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo.

This victory is considered here as retribution for the defeat on the Kalka River. The work expresses pride in the victory, glorifies Moscow as the state center of Russia. Zadonshchina has been preserved in the original. Characterized by good literary language.

In the genre of secular literature written Sailing over three seas Afanasy Nikitina. This is one of the few secular works preserved in Russia. It recounts the impressions of travel to India and many eastern countries. This is a travel diary.

THE BEGINNING OF PRINTING IN RUSSIA

The end of the 15th century is associated with the completion of the formation of the Great Russian people.

> A language was formed that differed from Church Slavonic. The Moscow dialect became dominant.

With the formation of a centralized state, the need for literate, educated people increased.

> In 1563 Ivan Fedorov headed the state printing house. His assistant was Fyodor Mstislavovich. First published book - Apostle. The printing house worked mainly for the needs of the church.

IN 1574 THE FIRST RUSSIAN ALPHABET IS PUBLISHED IN LVIV.

GENERAL POLITICAL THOUGHT OF RUSSIA IN THE 16TH CENTURY.

The reforms of the Chosen Rada under Ivan the Terrible were aimed at strengthening the centralization of the state. The general political thought of Russia reflected several trends on the relationship between power and individual segments of the population, designed to support it. Either the tsarist government had to fight the boyars, or the boyars had to be its main support.

Ivan Peresvetov (Russian y nobleman) was part of the embassy order. In his petitions, he expressed his program of action. In an allegorical form, he showed that the support of the state is service people. Their position in the service should be determined not by origin, but by personal merit. The main vices that led to the death of the state are the dominance of the nobles, their unjust judgment and indifference to the affairs of the state. In its allegorical form, the theme associated with the fall of Byzantium is actively flashed.

> Ivan Peresvetov called for pushing the boyars out of power and bringing those people who were really interested in military service closer to the tsar.

Another position was expressed by Prince Kurbsky (one of the leaders of the Chosen Rada). He defended the point of view that the best people of Russia should help her. The streak of persecution by the boyars coincided with the streak of failures of Russia. That is why Kurbsky left the country, because the boyars were treated incorrectly here.

IVAN THE TERRIBLE LOVED AND RESPECTED THIS MAN SO MUCH, THEREFORE, HIS DEPARTURE HAS BEEN PAINFUL.

They corresponded for a long time. Ivan the Terrible wrote to Kurbsky that boyar rule was negative, since in childhood he did not experience it himself. The king also wrote that in his actions he obeys the divine will.

> Ivan 4 equated the departure of Kurbsky with high treason (for the first time).

DOMOSTROY

In connection with the fact that it was necessary to raise the prestige of the new state, official literature was created, which regulated the spiritual, legal and everyday life of people. The largest work of that century was written by Metropolitan Macarius - Great Menaion Cheti

> The Great Menaion of the Honor of the Metropolitan of All Russia Macarius (1481/82-31.XII. 1563) is a book collection of 12 handwritten books, constituting an annual “reading circle” for almost every day, each of the 12 Menaia contains material for one of the months (starting from September). According to the plan of the initiator, the organizer of the correspondence and the editor of this book collection, Macarius, 12 folios of huge volume and size were supposed to absorb “all the holy books of Chetya”, revered and read in Russia, thanks to which the Great Menaion of Chetya became a kind of encyclopedia of Russian book literature of the 16th century.

Domostroy- a monument of Russian literature of the 16th century, which is a collection of rules, advice and instructions in all areas of human and family life, including social, family, economic and religious issues. It is best known in the mid-16th century edition attributed to Archpriest Sylvester.

> Although Domostroy was a collection of tips on housekeeping, it was written in artistic language and became a literary monument of the era.

PAINTING OF RUSSIA

Despite some decline in the development of the country, Russian painting reached its peak by the 14th-15th centuries. In modern literature, this period is assessed as the Russian revival. At this time, a series of remarkable painters was working in Russia.

> At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries, a person from Byzantium worked in Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod. painter Theophanes the Greek.

He superbly combined the Byzantine tradition and the already established Russian one. Sometimes he worked in violation of the canons. His images are psychological, spiritual tension is conveyed in his icons. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyen Street in Novgorod, together with Semyon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399).

> The great Russian artist who worked during this period is Andrei Rublev.

He is a master of laconic, but very expressive composition. An amazing picturesque color is visible in his works. And in his icons and frescoes one can feel the ideal of moral perfection. At the same time, he was able to convey the subtle emotional experiences of the characters. He participated in the painting of the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405) together with Theophan the Greek and the prokhor from Gorodets, painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity - Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420).

HIS BRUSH BELONG TO THE MASTERPIECE OF WORLD PAINTING — THE ICON OF THE TRINITY.

The image reflects the biblical story, when the forefather Abraham received at home three travelers sent by God and who brought him news of the impending birth of his son. The first images of three angels at the table appeared in Byzantium of the 14th century, and were called Philoxenia (Greek - "hospitality") of Abraham.

One of the first who breathed a new Eucharistic meaning into this icon was the Russian icon painter, St. Andrei Rublev. He depicted the Three Angels as the three hypostases of God. The middle angel symbolizes the Son of God - Jesus Christ, the left - God the Father, the right - God - the Holy Spirit (the basis of such an interpretation of the icon in the clothes and disposition of the Angels), however, the same appearance of the Faces shows that the Holy Trinity is one and indivisible Whole. In front of the Angels is a cup - a symbol of Christ's sacrifice for our sins.

> At the end of the 15th century, an outstanding contribution to the development of Russian painting was made by the outstanding icon painter Dionysius. He was an excellent colorist and a very complex master. Together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir, as well as other students, he created frescoes of the Assumption Kremlin Cathedral.

Among his creations was the famous icon of the Savior in strength.

At the same time, the Novgorod icon-painting school also functions. It is distinguished by the brightness of colors and the dynamism of the composition.

ARCHITECTURE OF RUSSIA

In the 14th-16th century, in connection with the centralization of the state, Moscow was decorated (under Ivan Kalita, stone construction developed).

UNDER DMITRY DONSKOY, THE WHITE STONE KREMLIN WAS ERECTED FOR THE FIRST TIME.

During the yoke, a series of old Russian churches is being restored. Thanks to completions and rebuildings, there is a tendency towards the crystallization of the Russian national architectural style based on the synthesis of the traditions of the Kyiv and Vladimir-Suzdal lands, which in the future became a model for subsequent construction in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

On the advice of Sophia Paleolog (grandmother of Ivan IV the Terrible), masters from Italy were invited. The purpose of this is to display the power and glory of the Russian state. The Italian Aristotle Floravanti traveled to Vladimir, examined the Assumption and Dmitrievsky Cathedrals. He successfully managed to combine the traditions of Russian and Italian architecture. In 1479 he successfully completed the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Following this, a granite chamber was built to receive foreign embassies.

> The appeal to national origins was especially clearly expressed in the stone architecture of the traditional Russian tent style, so characteristic of the wooden architecture of Russia.

The masterpieces of the tent style were the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Kremlin Square in Moscow. That is, their own architectural style appears.

The unity of the Russian lands could not but be reflected in the culture of liberated Russia in the 16th century. Construction was carried out on a grand scale, the culture of the state developed.

In the 15th and 16th centuries, construction was predominantly made of wood, but its principles were also applied in stone construction. Fortifications and fortresses were restored, and Kremlins were built in the cities of Russia.

The architecture of Russia in the 16th century was rich in outstanding structures of church architecture.

One of these structures are the Church of the Ascension in the village. Kolomenskoye (1532 ᴦ.) and St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1555 - 1560 ᴦ.). Many of the erected churches and temples belong to the tent style that was common at that time (typical for the wooden temples of ancient Russia).

Under the leadership of Fyodor Kon, the most powerful fortress was erected (in Smolensk) and the White City in Moscow is surrounded by walls and towers.

The painting of the 16th century in Russia mainly includes icon painting. The Stoglavy Cathedral accepted the works of A. Rublev as a canon in church painting.

The brightest monument of icon painting was the ʼʼMilitant Churchʼʼ. The icon was created in honor of the capture of Kazan, and interprets the described event as a victory for Orthodoxy. In the painting of the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, the influence of the West was felt. At the same time, the church was opposed to the penetration of genre and portrait painting into the church.

Also in the 16th century, the first printing house appeared in Russia, book printing began. Now numerous documents, orders, laws, handwritten books could be printed, although their cost exceeded handwritten work.

The first books were printed in 1553 - 1556. ʼʼanonymousʼʼ Moscow printing house. The first, exactly dated edition, refers to 1564 ᴦ., It was printed by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets and is usually called ʼʼApostolʼʼ.

Changes in politics, consisting in the formation of autocracy and all the ensuing consequences, stimulated the ideological struggle, which contributed to the flourishing of journalism. The literature of Russia of the 16th century includes ʼʼ Stories about the Kazan kingdom ʼʼ, ʼʼ The legend of the princes of Vladimirʼʼ, the 12-volume book ʼʼGreat Cheti-Minœiʼʼ, which includes all works revered in Russia for home reading (works that were not included in the popular collection were relegated to the second plan).

In the 16th century in Russia, boyars, simple in cut and form, acquired extraordinary showiness and luxury thanks to decorative ornaments. Such costumes gave splendor and majesty.

Due to the vast territories of Russia, in which different peoples live, having their own traditions and folk costumes, clothing differs based on the places of settlement of its owner. So, in the northern regions of the state, a shirt, a sundress and a kokoshnik were common, and in the southern regions - a shirt, a kichka and a poneva skirt.

The general attire (average) can be considered a long shirt length to the hem of a sundress, an open sundress, a kokoshnik and wicker shoes. The men's costume consisted of a long shirt made of homespun cloth - to the middle of the thigh or to the knees, ports - narrow and tight-fitting legs. At the same time, there were no special differences in the style of clothing of the nobility and peasants.

Introduction p. 3
Chapter 1. Russian culture of the XIV - XV centuries P. 6
1. Book business S. 6
2. Literature. Chronicle S. 8
3. Architecture p. 12
4. Painting S. 15
5. Accumulation of scientific knowledge P. 17
Chapter 2. Russian culture of the 15th - early 16th centuries P. 19
1. Book business S. 19
2. Chronicle. Literature S. 20
3. Architecture p. 21
4. Painting S. 25
Conclusion p. 26
List of used literature. S. 27

Introduction

In the middle of the XIII century, Russia was subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which had disastrous consequences for its economy and culture. It was accompanied by the extermination and captivity of a significant part of the population, the destruction of material values, cities and villages. The Golden Horde yoke, which had been established for two and a half centuries, created extremely unfavorable conditions for the restoration and further development of the economy and culture.
As a result of the political events of the 13th-14th centuries, various parts of the ancient Russian people were divided, cut off from each other. Entry into different state formations made it difficult to develop economic and cultural ties between individual regions of the formerly united Russia, deepening the differences in language and culture that existed before. This led to the formation, on the basis of the ancient Russian nationality, of three fraternal nationalities - Russian (Great Russian), Ukrainian and Belarusian. The formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality, which began in the 14th and ended in the 16th century, was facilitated by the emergence of a common language (while maintaining dialectal differences in it) and culture, and the formation of a common state territory.
Two main, closely interconnected circumstances of the historical life of the people at that time determined the content of culture and the direction of its development: the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke and the struggle for the elimination of feudal fragmentation, the creation of a single state.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion led to a deepening of feudal fragmentation. In the culture of the disunited feudal principalities, along with separatist tendencies, unifying tendencies were more and more clearly manifested.
The idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land and the struggle against the foreign yoke became one of the leading in culture and a red thread runs through the works of oral folk art, writing, painting, architecture.
The culture of this time is also characterized by the idea of ​​an inseparable connection between Russia of the XIV-XV centuries with Kievan Rus and Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. This trend was clearly manifested in oral folk art, annals, literature, political thought, and architecture.
In this essay, we examined the development of Russian culture in the XIV - early XVI centuries. This period can be divided into two stages: XIV - the middle of the XV century and the end of the XV - the beginning of the XVI century. Within the first period, in turn, two stages of the historical and cultural process can be distinguished. The first of them (until about the middle of the 14th century) was marked by a noticeable decline in various areas of culture, although already from the end of the 13th century. there were signs of a renaissance. From the second half of the XIV century. - the second stage - the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over the conquerors in the Battle of Kulikovo, which was an important milestone on the path to liberating the country from foreign yoke. The Kulikovo victory caused an upsurge of national consciousness, which was reflected in all areas of culture. While maintaining significant local features in culture, the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land becomes the leading one.
The turn of the XV - XVI centuries is a turning point in the historical development of the Russian lands. Three interconnected phenomena are characteristic of this time: the formation of a unified Russian state, the liberation of the country from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the completion of the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) people. All of them had a direct impact on the spiritual life of Russia, on the development of its culture, predetermined the nature and direction of the historical and cultural process.
The overcoming of feudal fragmentation, the creation of a single state power created favorable conditions for the economic and cultural development of the country, served as a powerful stimulus for the rise of national self-consciousness. The beneficial influence of these factors affected the development of all Russian culture at the end of the 15th - the first half of the 16th century, manifesting itself especially clearly in socio-political thought and architecture.
And in the spiritual culture, the idea of ​​unity and the struggle for independence with foreign invaders continued to be one of the leading ones.
During the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Russia was isolated from the countries of Central and Western Europe, which had advanced in their development. For the Russian state, the establishment of ties with Western European culture was an important condition for overcoming backwardness and strengthening its position among European powers. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century, relations with Italy and other countries successfully developed, which had a beneficial effect on Russian culture, outstanding architects and other masters came to work in Russia.
The most important factor in the development of culture is the influence of the church on the spiritual life of society, the strength of its position in the state. Throughout the period under review, these relationships were far from uniform.
The development of progressive tendencies in culture, elements of a rationalistic worldview turned out to be associated with circles opposed to autocracy.

1. Russian culture of the XIV - mid-XV centuries

1. BOOK BUSINESS.
Although the disastrous consequences of foreign invasions had a negative impact on the preservation of book wealth and on the level of literacy, nevertheless, the traditions of writing and literacy, established in the 11th-12th centuries, were preserved and further developed.
The rise of culture from the second half of the 14th century was accompanied by the development of the book business. The largest centers of book learning were monasteries, in which there were book-writing workshops and libraries with hundreds of volumes. The most significant were the book collections of the Trinity-Sergius, Kirillo-Belozersky and Solovetsky monasteries that have survived to our time. From the end of the XV century. the inventory of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery has come down to us (4, p. 67).
But the church did not have a monopoly on the creation and distribution of books. As evidenced by the postscripts of the scribes themselves on the books, a significant part of them did not belong to the clergy. Book writing workshops also existed in cities, at princely courts. Books were made, as a rule, to order, sometimes for sale.
The development of writing and book business was accompanied by changes in the technique of writing. In the XIV century. expensive parchment was replaced by paper, which was delivered from other countries, mainly from Italy and France. Changed the graphics of the letter; instead of a strict "statutory" letter, the so-called semi-charter appeared, and from the 15th century. and "cursive", which speeded up the process of making a book. All this made the book more accessible and contributed to meeting the growing demand (9, p. 47).
Liturgical books prevailed in book production, the necessary set of which was in every religious institution - in a church, a monastery. The nature of the reader's interests was reflected in "who's" books, that is, books intended for individual reading. There were many such books in the monastic libraries. The most common type of "fourth" book in the XV century. have become collections of mixed composition, which researchers call "libraries in miniature".
The repertoire of the "fourth" collections is quite extensive. Along with translated patriotic and hagiographic works, they contained original Russian compositions; next to religious and edifying literature were works of a secular nature - excerpts from the annals, historical stories, journalism. The appearance in these collections of articles of a natural science nature is noteworthy. So, in one of the collections of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery of the beginning of the 15th century. articles "On the latitude and longitude of the earth", "On the stages and fields", "On the distance between heaven and earth", "Moon current", "On the earthly dispensation", etc. were placed. The author of these articles decisively broke with the fantastic ideas of church literature about the structure of the universe. The earth was recognized as a ball, although it was still placed in the center of the universe (4, p.32). In other articles, a completely realistic explanation of natural phenomena is given (for example, thunder and lightning, which, according to the author, come from the collision of clouds). Here are also articles on medicine, biology, extracts from the works of a Roman scientist and physician of the 2nd century BC. Galena.
The Russian book of the 14th-15th centuries played an outstanding role in the revival of literary monuments of the past and in the dissemination of contemporary works of deep ideological and political sound.

2. LITERATURE. CHRONICLE.
Russian literature of the 14th-15th centuries inherited from ancient Russian literature its sharp publicism, put forward the most important problems of the political life of Russia. Chronicle writing was especially closely connected with socio-political life. Being historical works, the chronicles were at the same time political documents that played an important role in the ideological and political struggle (1, p.12).
In the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, chronicle writing experienced a decline. But it, interrupted for a while in some, resumed in new political centers. Chronicle writing was still distinguished by local features, great attention to local events, tendentious coverage of events from the positions of one or another feudal center. But the theme of the unity of the Russian land and its struggle against foreign invaders was a common thread in all chronicles.
At first, the Moscow chronicle, which appeared in the first half of the 14th century, also had a local character. However, with the growth of the political role of Moscow, it gradually acquired a nationwide character. In the course of development, the Moscow chronicle became the focus of advanced political ideas. It not only reflected and ideologically consolidated Moscow's successes in the unification of the Russian lands, but also actively participated in this work, vigorously promoting unifying ideas.
The revival of the all-Russian annals at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries testified to the growth of national self-consciousness. The first all-Russian code, which broke with narrow local interests and took the position of the unity of Russia, was compiled in Moscow at the beginning of the 15th century (the so-called Trinity Chronicle, which perished during the Moscow fire of 1812). Moscow chroniclers did a great job of unifying and processing disparate regional vaults. Around 1418, with the participation of Metropolitan Photius, the compilation of a new annalistic code (Vladimir Polychron) was undertaken, the main idea of ​​which was the union of the Moscow grand ducal power with the urban population of feudal centers in order to politically unify Russia. These vaults formed the basis of subsequent annalistic vaults. One of the most significant works of Russian chronicle writing was the Moscow collection of 1479 (1, p. 49).
All Moscow chronicles are permeated with the idea of ​​the need for state unity and strong grand ducal power. They clearly speak of the historical and political concept that developed at the beginning of the 15th century, according to which the history of Russia in the 14th-15th centuries is a direct continuation of the history of Ancient Russia. Chronicles promoted the later official idea that Moscow inherits the political traditions of Kyiv and Vladimir, is their successor. This was emphasized by the fact that the vaults began with The Tale of Bygone Years.
Unifying ideas that met the vital interests of various strata of feudal society were also developed in a number of other centers. Even in Novgorod, which was distinguished by particularly strong separatist tendencies, in the 30s of the 15th century, the all-Russian Novgorod-Sophia code was created, which included the code of Photius. The chronicle of Tver also assumed an all-Russian character, in which strong grand ducal power was propagated and the facts of the liberation struggle against the Golden Horde were noted. But it clearly exaggerated the role of Tver and the princes of Tver in the unification of Russia (1, p. 50).
The central theme of literature was the struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders. Therefore, one of the most common genres was the military story. The works of this genre were based on specific historical facts and events, and the characters were real historical figures.
An outstanding monument of narrative literature of the military genre is "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu". The main part of its content is the story of the capture and ruin of Ryazan by the Tatars and the fate of the princely family. The story condemns feudal strife as the main reason for the defeat of the Russians, and at the same time, from the point of view of religious morality, what is happening is assessed as a punishment for sins. This testifies to the desire of church ideologists to use the very fact of the catastrophe to propagate Christian ideas and strengthen the influence of the church.
The struggle against the Swedish and German feudal lords was reflected in the secular retinue story about Alexander Nevsky, which contained a detailed description of the Battle of the Neva and the "Battle on the Ice". But this story has not come down to us. It was reworked into the life of Alexander Nevsky and received a religious overtone. The story about the Pskov prince Dovmont, dedicated to the struggle of the Pskovites against the German and Lithuanian aggression, underwent a similar transformation (1, p. 52).
A monument of Tver literature of the early 14th century is "The Tale of the Assassination of Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich in the Horde". This is a topical political work that had an anti-Moscow orientation. On the basis of an oral folk poetic work, the Tale of Shevkala was written, dedicated to the uprising in Tver in 1327.
The victory over the Mongol-Tatars on the Kulikovo field in 1380 caused a rise in national self-consciousness, inspired the Russian people with self-confidence. Under its influence, the Kulikovsky cycle of works arose, which are united by one main idea - the unity of the Russian land as the basis for victory over the enemy. The four main monuments included in this cycle are different in character, style, and content. All of them speak of the Battle of Kulikovo as the greatest historical victory of Russia over the Tatars (4, p.24-25).
The deepest and most significant work of this cycle is "Zadonshchina" - a poem written by Zephanius Ryazan shortly after the Battle of Kulikovo. The author did not seek to give a consistent and detailed depiction of events. Its goal is to glorify the great victory over the hated enemy, to glorify its organizers and participants (4, p.345). The poem emphasizes the role of Moscow in organizing the victory, and presents Prince Dmitry Ivanovich as the true organizer of the Russian forces.
In the Chronicle of the Battle of Kulikovo, for the first time, a coherent story is given about the events of 1380. It emphasizes the unity and cohesion of the Russian forces around the Grand Duke, the campaign against the Tatars is regarded as an all-Russian cause. However, the story noticeably departs from real historical facts, which are comprehended from the point of view of religious morality: the ultimate cause of the defeat of the Tatars is "divine will"; in the spirit of religious concepts, the behavior of the Ryazan prince Oleg is condemned; Dmitry Donskoy is depicted as a Christian ascetic, endowed with piety, peacefulness and love of Christ.
"The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev" is the most voluminous and most popular work of the Kulikovo cycle. It is ideologically and artistically contradictory; two different approaches to understanding events coexist in it. One side. The Kulikovo victory is regarded as a reward for the Christian virtues characteristic of Russians; on the other hand, a real view of things: the author of the "Tale" is well versed in the political situation of that time, highly appreciates the heroism and patriotism of the Russian people, the foresight of the Grand Duke, understands the significance of unity between princes. In the "Tale" the idea of ​​a close union of the church and princely power finds justification (description of the relationship between Dmitry Donskoy and Sergius of Radonezh) (4, p. 189).
Only in connection with the biography of Dmitry Donskoy is the Battle of Kulikovo mentioned in the "Sermon on the Life and Repose of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich, Tsar of Russia". This is a solemn panegyric to the deceased prince, in which his deeds are praised and their significance for the present and future of Russia is determined. The image of Dmitry Ivanovich combines the features of an ideal hagiographic hero and an ideal statesman, emphasizing the Christian virtues of the prince. This reflected the desire of the clergy for an alliance with the grand duke's power.
The events of 1382, when Tokhtamysh attacked Moscow, formed the basis of the story "On the Capture of Moscow from Tsar Tokhtamysh and the Captivity of the Russian Land." The story is inherent in such a feature as democracy, therefore it occupies a special place in the literature of the XIV - XV centuries, covering events from the standpoint of the broad masses, in this case the population of Moscow. It has no individual hero. Ordinary citizens who took over the defense of Moscow after the princes and boyars fled from it - this is the true hero of the story (9, p.53-54).
During the period under review, hagiographic literature developed greatly, a number of works of which are permeated with topical journalistic ideas. Church preaching in them was combined with the development of the idea of ​​the dominant role of Moscow and the close union of the princely power and the church (and the church power was given priority) as the main condition for the strengthening of Russia. In hagiographic literature, specific ecclesiastical interests were also reflected, which by no means always coincided with the interests of the grand duke's power. The Life of Metropolitan Peter, written by Metropolitan Cyprian, was of a journalistic nature, who saw the common fate of Metropolitan Peter, who was not recognized as a prince of Tver in his time, with his own and with his complex relationship with the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich.
In hagiographic literature, the rhetorical-panegyric style (or expressive-emotional style) has become widespread. The text included lengthy and ornate speeches-monologues, author's rhetorical digressions, reasoning of a moral and theological nature. Much attention was paid to describing the feelings of the hero, his state of mind, psychological motivations for the actions of the characters appeared. The expressive-emotional style reached the pinnacle of its development in the work of Epiphanius the Wise and Pachomius Logothetes.