Project: the concept and essence of the project. Organizational project management tools

PROJECT

Case #1

The figure shows an image of the network model of the "Project to create a new pharmaceutical product":

Find the critical path.

Case #2

The figure shows an image of the network model of the Alpha Project, it is necessary to identify the critical path:

Case #3

Case №4

The figure shows an image of the network model of the "BBB" Project, it is necessary to identify the critical path:

Case #5

The figure shows an image of the network model of Project "A", it is necessary to identify the critical path:

PROJECT TEAM MANAGEMENT

Case #1

Choose the most profitable project for the Aquarium project group (calculating the rate of return of projects): Project A requires an investment of 900, income stream: first year - 350, second year - 425, third year - 650. Project B requires costs of 325 and will provide income: first year - 100, second year - 200, third year - 300. Discount rate - 10%.

Case #2

The credit policy of Investor Bank limits the repayment term of the loan provided to finance investment projects related to the industry building materials, three years. Will there be a loan project team Alfa for the construction of a brick factory worth 1,300 million rubles, if the income stream is 500 million rubles. annually, discount rate - 8%

Case #3

The West project team needs to calculate the net present value of the income from the project. The cost of the project is 2450 million rubles, the flow of income: in the first year - 100 million rubles, in the second - 550 million rubles, in the third 800 million rubles, in the fourth - 1200 million rubles, in the fifth - 1500 million rubles, discount rate - 10%.

Case №4

The Voskhod project team needs to calculate the rate of return of a project worth 1400 million rubles, if in the first year of operation it will bring a loss of 200 million rubles, in the next five years the annual income will be 350 million rubles, the discount rate is 6% .

Case #5

Which project should be preferred by the Alfavit project team? The costs of the Omega project - 800 million rubles, income: in the first year - 200 million rubles, in the second - 350 million rubles, in the third - 400 million rubles, in the fourth year - 500 million. rub., the discount rate is 11%. The cost of the Alpha project is 2,100 million rubles, the income for five years is 600 million rubles annually, the discount rate is 8%.

PROJECT COMMUNICATION MANAGEMENT

Case #1

Case #2

The figure shows the organizational structure of management, determine the type of organizational structure and identify its disadvantages and advantages

Case #3

The figure shows the organizational structure of management, determine the type of organizational structure and identify its disadvantages and advantages

Case №4

The figure shows the organizational structure of management, determine the type of organizational structure and identify its disadvantages and advantages

Case #5

The figure shows the organizational structure of management, determine the type of organizational structure and identify its disadvantages and advantages.

PROJECT BUDGETING

Case #1

Determine the payback period of the Ural investment project, which requires an investment of 1000. The predicted income stream will be: the first year - 200, the second - 500, the third - 600, the fourth - 800, the fifth - 900. Discount rates - 15%.

Case #2

Calculate the net present value of the income of the Ural project, which requires an investment of 1000. The projected income stream will be: the first year - 200, the second - 500, the third - 600, the fourth - 800, the fifth - 900. Discount rates - 15%.

1. Reduced project costs - 1000

2. The sum of the reduced income - 1851

3. Net present value of income - 851

Case №4

Choose the most profitable project (by calculating the rate of return of projects): Project A requires an investment of 900, income stream: first year - 300, second year - 400, third year - 600. Project B requires costs of 325 and will provide income: first year - 100, second year - 200, third year - 300. Discount rate - 10%.

Case #5

Calculate the payback period for the Sun project, which requires costs in the amount of 850 million rubles. and providing income: in the first year - 85 million rubles, in the second - 300 million rubles, in the third - 400 million rubles, in the fourth - 500 million rubles, in the fifth year - 600 million rubles. , discount rate - 12% (business valuation).

The first part briefly reviewed the nature of the project and related activities. At the same time, the issue of structuring work to achieve the goals of the project was raised. It is obvious that such activities, as noted above, serve to increase the efficiency project activities according to different parameters (cost, terms, etc.). Organizational tools can also be named among the elements of project activity. The following types of organizational tools are distinguished http://tww48.narod.ru/slides_03/PM_03.files/frame.htm#slide0040.htm:

1. network matrices (more than high level scientific development of "network graphs"):

present the entire project implementation process in a visual form,

· identify the composition and structure of work, and acceptable means and methods of their implementation;

analyze the relationship between performers and work;

· prepare a science-based coordinated plan for the implementation of the entire range of work on the project for more efficient use of available resources and reduction of time.

2. Matrix of separation of administrative tasks of management (CAM):

Using this matrix in the project management system, it is possible to divide the duties, rights and responsibilities of all project participants in the project team and, on this basis, build an organizational and dynamic structure and information system.

3. information technology model (ITM):

Helps to carry out the design of project management technology, that is, fixing the sequence and relationship of solving management problems.

Project Planning

The planning process is at the heart of project implementation. Planning in one form or another is carried out throughout the life of the project. "Planning is a continuous process of determining the best course of action to achieve your goals, given the current situation" http://www.betec.ru/index.php?id=6&sid=18. At the beginning life cycle project usually develops an informal preliminary plan - a rough idea of ​​​​what will need to be done during the implementation of the project. The decision to select a project is largely based on preliminary plan evaluations. Formal and detailed project planning begins after the decision to open it is made. Are determined key events- milestones of the project, tasks, works and their mutual dependence are formulated.

The project plan is a single, coherent and consistent document that includes the results of the planning of all project management functions and is the basis for the execution and control of the project.

Network Graphs and Network Matrices

The project consists of many stages and stages performed various performers. This complex process must be clearly coordinated and linked in time. The following requirements are imposed on planning and management systems:

the ability to assess the current state;

predict the future course of work;

Help to choose right direction to influence current issues so that the whole complex of works was completed on time according to the budget.

At this stage, the sequence of work that is part of the WBS is determined, resulting in a network schedule. This graph represents an information-dynamic model that reflects the relationships between the activities required to achieve the ultimate goal of the project. The network diagram is also useful in the development of large systems in which many performers of work are employed, for the operational management of development.

The network diagram depicts all the relationships and the results of all the work necessary to achieve the final goal of the development, in the form of a directed graph, i.e. a graphic scheme consisting of points - graph vertices, connected by directed lines - arrows, which are called graph edges. The duration of work can be determined in the presence of norms of labor intensity of work - by the appropriate calculation; in the absence of labor intensity standards - expertly. Based on the network schedule and estimated duration of work, the main parameters of the schedule are calculated.

There are two possible approaches to building network models. In the first case, the arrows on the graph depict the work, and the vertices - the events. Such models are classified as "Job-Arrow" and are called network graphs. In the second approach, on the contrary, events correspond to arrows, and jobs correspond to vertices. Such models are classified as "Work-top" and are called networks of precedence (each subsequent work is connected with the previous one). On Fig. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 show examples of these types of models.

Works are any actions that lead to the achievement of certain results - events. Events, except for the initial one, are the results of the execution of work. Only one job or sequence of jobs can be executed between two adjacent events.

To build network models, it is necessary to determine the logical relationships between jobs. The reason for the interconnections are, as a rule, technological limitations (the start of some works depends on the completion of others). The complex of interrelations between works determines the sequence of work execution in time.

Fig.2.1 Network model of "Job-arrow" type - Network diagram.

Fig.2.2 Network model of type "Work-node" - Network of precedence

When managing project activities, tools for creating hierarchical network models are often used. "The process of building a network is done in steps" http://www.iis.nsk.su/preprints/Monog/MONOGR/node49.html. First of all, the root level of the hierarchical network is created, which consists of structural transitions of the work system, representing its modules. Also at this stage, places are created that model interaction points. These places and structural transitions are connected by arcs in accordance with the project implementation stage. The next three generation steps are performed sequentially for each module. At the second step, a network is generated that implements the module. This network, in turn, will contain structural transitions. At this stage of construction, the arcs are not created, but are completed at the next step, where subnets are created corresponding to structural transitions. After that, individual operators are broadcast. In the process of constructing such a network, arcs are created for the second-level network. At the fourth step, structural transitions are created that implement procedures and functions, if any. At the final step - network optimization - all empty transitions are removed, that is, transitions that have empty bodies and do not have expressions on the output arcs.

Network matrices, as mentioned above, is a higher level of scientific development of network graphs. They represent " graphic image project implementation processes, where all work (management, production) is shown in a certain technological sequence and the necessary interconnection and dependence” http://tww48.narod.ru/slides_03/PM_03.files/frame.htm#slide0040.htm.

It is combined with a calendar-scale time grid, which has horizontal and vertical "corridors": horizontal "corridors" characterize the level of management, structural unit or official performing this or that work; vertical - stage and individual operations of the project management process, occurring in time (Appendix 1).

The process of building a network matrix based on the network of precedence ("Work-top") includes the following steps. First of all, this is the definition of participants in the implementation of the project, their distribution hierarchically and formatting in the form of a table (for example, as shown in Appendix 1): line by line from top to bottom in accordance with the position occupied in the project. It is determined what everyone can do and what is really required of him for the needs of the project. Then a list of works is compiled, the implementation of which is necessary to achieve the goals. Using, for example, the critical path method, the order of work execution is determined. Then, marking the work symbol(circle, square, etc.), they are distributed into the cells of the calendar-scale grid, in which the model is placed, the elements of which are subsequently connected by arrows, illustrating - in turn - the sequence of work.

When building a network matrix, three basic concepts are used: "work" (including expectation and dependence), "event" and "path".

Work is a labor process that requires time and resources; the concept of "work" includes the process of waiting, that is, a process that requires not labor and resources, but time, which is depicted by a dotted arrow with a designation of the duration of the wait above it.

Event - the result of the execution of all the work included in this event, allowing you to start all the work coming out of it; on the network matrix, an event is usually indicated as a circle.

Path - a continuous sequence of works, starting from the initial event and ending with the final one; the path with the longest duration is called the critical path and is indicated in the matrix by a thickened or double arrow.

The following parameters of network graphs are distinguished:

time of early start (RN) of this work;

time of early completion (RO) of this work;

late start time (LN) of this work;

late completion time (LT) of this work;

a full reserve of time for this work;

private time reserve for this work;

Work stress factor.

That is, it can be seen here that almost all of them are associated with a temporary limitation of work, on the basis of which we can confidently assert that the use of network diagrams in general and network matrices in particular is designed to ensure, first of all, the planning of the timing of various works. Network planning methods are "methods whose main goal is to minimize the duration of the project" http://www.projectmanagement.ru/theory/pm_glos.html. This, in turn, will allow more rational planning of work and resources at the stages of project activities, some or all of which will be identified precisely as a result of building a network matrix.

Aggregation, impact, activity, change, tool, combination, cooperation, coordination, methodology, set, sequence, consequences, application, adaptation, procedure, result, method, means, subject, technology, universality, unification, factor, function, part, efficiency. Substantiation, development, approbation, adaptation, classification, application and modernization of modern tools of the organization.

All organizational activity of an individual, group, corporation, society as a whole must be provided by one or another set of specific means and methods of purposeful influence, reliably represented by such a concept as tools.

Tools

(From lat. - instrument of labor) - an ordered set, a complex of means of purposeful influence and methods of their application.

Unlike a separate tool, the choice, adaptation and application of which can be carried out randomly, based on the prevailing circumstances, the toolkit is initially developed and formed as a single complex for ensuring the implementation of purposeful activities. This is what determines both the actual set of chosen and mastered tools, and the technology of their cooperation, combination and application. Moreover, such interrelations are established not only within relatively independent sets of instruments of research and influence, but also between their individual components or them in a complex.

The substantiation, development, construction and application of the organization's tools are based on the unity of the universal process of research and influence, the use of its potential, content and results by the widest range of scientists and practitioners. This makes it possible to eliminate parallelism, duplication, inconsistency, improve the sequence of building an organization, significantly increase the efficiency of its functioning and development, ensuring targeted coordination and adaptation of the actions of all participants, users, and even observers.

Such coordination is in demand by a number of objective factors and subjective goals of the organization. First of all, the research tools are substantiated, formed and applied universally to both objective and subjective organizations. Moreover, often it is he who becomes not only a single, but also the only basis for the development and implementation of a targeted impact on a mixed organization.

Meteorological conditions for the organization of flights of airliners

Research and influence tools should be sufficiently independent, their natural aggregation cannot distort the content and results of the application. This problem is especially relevant for a wide variety of conformist organizations, where reports are drawn up according to the principle "as much as necessary, as much as we will show," and what happened and its results are qualified by the explanation: "We planned it." The successful solution of this problem makes it necessary to ensure the required level of independence in the use of research tools and the validity and effectiveness of the impact. On this basis, an important organizational rule is formulated.

Adequate research is essential to ensure effective exposure

In real conditions, it is important to understand that the instrumental approach actually determines not only two independent procedural manifestations, but the entire possible scale of selection, evaluation, correlation, transformation, cooperation, etc. explored and changed. Moreover, the configuration of this scale can have not only a linear, but also a parallel and branched, including multidimensional, representation that activates the development and use of derivative modifications as independent tools, such as classification and its corresponding correction.

The forms of modeling such a tool palette in the process of adaptation can also be differentiated and brought to the subject-object base, procedure, structure, specific features and other characteristics of a particular organization. This allows you to determine in more detail the use of various research and influence tools, expand and present them in the form of a universal range of methods and tools, select differentially, purposefully modify and use modern, adapted and most effective models building an intellectual and material organization (see applications, situation 4).

The logic of building and using the complex tools of the organization is laid in the foundations for the development, implementation and application of a specific methodology for analysis and evaluation. The effectiveness of research is determined by the versatility, diversity and level of development of the tool palette, the formation of a wide range of necessary methods for applying a wide variety of procedures, the arrangement of these and other components into a single set of applied configurations.

All this convincingly proves that an absolutely necessary basis for the development and implementation of any impact is an adequate toolkit for analyzing and evaluating the distinguished and studied qualities of an organization, determined by the subject-object orientation. Moreover, both the subject and the object of the organization have their determining influence on the formation and application of specific tools.

So, for example, it is the subject who represents and plays the most probable scenarios for the development of the situation, and the object approach applied by him directly forms the necessary foundations for constructing and using organization modeling tools.

The actual modeling tools are widely and diversely used in programming, design, development, construction and maintenance of the functioning and development of a wide variety of organizations. Examples of such use are given extensively and in detail in scientific publications and reports on research programs conducted directly at specific enterprises and organizations. They comprehensively reveal and convincingly show the organizational nature of the formation and the effectiveness of the use of modeling, the versatility, complexity and effectiveness of this toolkit of the organization.

The essence and main effect of its application lies in the fact that modeling makes it possible to avoid catastrophic errors by conducting an experiment, to identify extreme trends, and to determine promising directions. This makes it possible to achieve decisive innovations in the construction, adaptation and application of specific tools for research and transformation of the processes of mixed and subjective organization with much less money, but with greater guarantees.

AT real life, even when attention is not specifically focused on the use of such tools, in the representations of the intellectual organization of one's own consciousness, the individual anyway, one way or another, "scrolls" the upcoming actions and their possible consequences, which in itself is already a simulation. It is this nature that determines the key place, the determining role and the strategic perspective of the formation and development of modeling as one of the fundamental units of the modern representation of the universal toolkit of the organization.

It is clear that the research toolkit includes many other very diverse, constantly improving among the ways of studying the organization. Their composition, content, configurations of interaction and use are determined by the goals, objects and conditions of application, the form of integration of individual studies and their results into the process of organizational changes and development of the organization (see applications, situation 4). Examples of such integration will be discussed in more detail in Chap. 18 of this textbook, here the authors limit themselves to the already given provisions for the presentation of research tools and an assessment of its place and role in the formation, functioning and development of a modern organization.

The application of the object approach inevitably faces the need to study and resolve the emerging hierarchical contradictions of the organization. In contrast to self-organization, their importance in the construction and use of universal organizational tools increases dramatically, as they move into the sphere of formation and development of management relations. In the course of the practical application of the organization's tools, within the framework of the development and implementation of a specific impact, contradictions directly arise in the distribution of powers and ensuring coordination between the participants in this process.

Indeed, the diversity of understanding, the contradictions of application, or even the substitution of the essence of coordination by the content of the organization are quite common in theory and practice. Similar tendencies of their comparison, analysis and evaluation, the conclusions made on them again actualized the question of the theoretical relationship and practical application concepts of organization and coordination.

In the course of substantiation, construction and use of complex research and impact tools, the ratio of organization and coordination becomes one of the key provisions. Moreover, this leads a number of scientists and practitioners to the assumption that any function of the organization aggregately includes, should or can include the content of coordination at the level of the subject of research or impact.

A reasonable resolution of this problem is necessary to determine the functional manifestation of the coordination aggregate in the toolkit of the organization and can be conceptually considered in Fig. 11.1 as a conceptual model.

As can be seen even from a superficial analysis of the construction of this model, the real relationship between organization and coordination is manifested in the presence or absence of hierarchy relations in them. Indeed, only a subordinate can be organized, but the success of interaction also depends on those who are not subordinate to you. Linking

Rice. 11.1.

joint actions of various, independent subjects to achieve a single goal at this stage are provided by the coordination function (see annexes, situation 2). In this manifestation, coordination does not enter into the function of the organization, but it absolutely develops the use of the tools of the organization.

At the same time, further analysis shows that the control action, rising to a higher level, for which all those participating in this interaction are subordinates, whose joint actions are possible and necessary to organize accordingly, most often becomes inadequate, late or emasculated by the administrative-bureaucratic procedure. In this case, the content of the impact is somehow transformed into an organization that is consistently integrated into a single toolkit, which is far from always justified by the situation and provides an effective solution to the tasks set.

The coordination tool is initially distinguished as an alternative to the organization, providing direct, operational, equal interaction between all interested, participating or benefiting entities. It is formed, formed, implemented, adjusted and developed on an equal footing, in real time, within the framework of a single socio-economic and administrative-legal market space. All this makes it possible to create conditions for ensuring the most complete, comprehensive, balanced and independent consideration of both private and general interests of any organization.

At the same time, the content and results of coordination largely depend on the status and condition of the corresponding subjects, which does not always ensure equality of opportunities for their interaction. In this case, coordination is latently or openly transposed into an organization carried out by a higher level, based on the priority of its formal or informal status, and in some cases the position of one of the parties.

It is this phenomenon that is often mistaken for coordination, which, according to some researchers, is directly part of the organization. Meanwhile, the one-sided, vertical orientation of such influence clearly indicates the initial lack of coordination in it and its implementation on a strictly organizational, hierarchically developed basis. And indeed, not coming to an agreement on interaction acceptable to all, the parties, as a rule, appeal to a higher level, relying on its organizational participation in resolving the problem.

The given configuration reflects the ratio of organization and coordination not only in the study, but also in the impact on the object. It allows for the possibility of interaction and even transformation of the organization and coordination with specific goals and at specific levels of management. The problem of integrated implementation of organization and coordination tools, ensuring their interaction in processes and management systems will be considered in more detail in last section textbook, here the authors dwell on the differences between them already highlighted above.

The universality of the organization's tools is manifested not only in the development and application of a single mechanism or its purposeful switching with functions such as coordination. It, as it was shown at the beginning of this chapter, can also be realized in the most direct way in an absolutely necessary, organic and consistent combination of research and impact on the object. In this regard, the universal toolkit becomes one of the specific and at the same time the most common aggregated manifestations of a particular organization.

Based on the use of a wide palette of a wide variety of configurations, a combination of external tools, means, methods, techniques, procedures for directly influencing the formation and development of organizational relations in real processes and systems, the organization's tools are used in the form of complex universal structures that combine individual components into a well-functioning, purposefully acting mechanism. organizations. The basic procedures of such a mechanism are constantly being upgraded and expanded with innovative configurations that largely determine the essence and content of organizational changes and the development of the organization.

The configurations for building and using such tools are understandable and diverse, the tasks they solve are specific, but in general, the most common aggregations of basic models can be represented as follows (Fig. 11.2).

The configurations shown here are a simplified (linear-horizontal) representation reflecting the fundamentals

Rice . 11.2.

principles, content and sequence of their development and construction. In practice, such a dependence can branch out, develop, specialize and modernize not only at the development stage, but also in the course of using a specific toolkit, which significantly expands the application palette of its use.

Wherein special meaning acquire precisely the sequence and continuity of the linear switching of the presented chains, reflecting specific methodology building organizational tools. So, in the chain at the first level, the order already determines the rigidity of the regulation of the implementation of a particular command by its own status. In each specific case, on this basis, applied methods should be formed, adapted and applied to ensure the most complete achievement of the organization's goals through the targeted design and use of one or another aggregation.

ORGANIZATIONAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT TOOLS

3.1 Network matrices

Network matrices are the most effective tool in project management. Οʜᴎ represent a higher level of scientific development of network diagrams and are used at all stages of the project life cycle.

In the network matrix, design work is depicted graphically in a certain sequence and taking into account the relationships and dependencies between them. Let's take a fragment of the network matrix as an example (Fig. 9).

Rice. 9 Fragment of network matrix

The network matrix is ​​combined with the calendar scale time grid. Horizontal "corridors" of the grid correspond to officials, structural subdivisions or management levels. Vertical "corridors" correspond to individual time intervals.

When constructing a matrix, three basic concepts– work, event and path.

Work- ϶ᴛᴏ a process that requires time and resources. On the graph, it is depicted as a solid arrow.

The word "work" also refers to expectation and addiction.

Expectation- ϶ᴛᴏ process requiring time expenditure, but does not require resources. On the graph, it is indicated by a dotted arrow with an indication of the waiting time.

Addiction (dummy job) indicates only the existence of a connection between the activities, when the start of the activity depends on the completion of other activities. There is no need for time and resources. The dependence is indicated by a dotted arrow without indicating the time.

Event is indicated, as a rule, in the form of a circle and represents the result of the execution of all the work included in it. At the same time, the event allows you to start all the work that comes out of it.

From the above example (Fig. 9) it can be seen that within the framework of the control process there are four events, with event 1 being the initial one, events 2 and 3 being intermediate, and event 4 being the final one. These events are related to the execution of work, with work 1-2 and 2-4 being performed by the director, work 1-3 and 3-4 by his deputy, and work 1-4 by the chief engineer.

The sequence of work from the initial event to the final one forms path. The path that has the longest duration in the network matrix is ​​called critical and is indicated, as a rule, by a thickened or double arrow.

When building network matrices, it is extremely important to adhere to the following basic rules.

· The rule of designation of works.

It is not allowed to designate parallel works with the same code (Fig. 10a). This means that there should be only one arrow between two adjacent events. Otherwise, it is extremely important to introduce an additional event and dependence into the matrix and separate one of the works with them (Fig. 10b).

· The rule of prohibition of "dead ends".

There should be no events in the network matrix from which no work exits (except for the final network event). The presence of such events means that extra work has been introduced or there is an error in the technology for their implementation.

· The rule of prohibition of unsecured events.

There should be no events in the network matrix that do not include any work (other than the original network event). In this case, the start condition will not be set for the activities coming out of such unsecured events. Therefore, the work will not be done.

· Delivery image rule.

Supply- ϶ᴛᴏ the result obtained outside the project management system. The delivery is depicted as a circle with a cross inside. In the given example (Fig. 10c), delivery is required to perform work 2-3. As a rule, next to the circle of delivery indicate the number of the specification that reveals its content.

· The rule of organizational and technological links between works.

The network matrix takes into account only the directly indicated dependence between jobs (Fig. 10d). To show that activity 4-5 must be preceded not only by activity 3-4 but also by activity 1-2, the matrix additionally indicates the relationship between events 2 and 4.

· technological rule construction of network matrices.

To build a network matrix, it is extremely important to establish which works must be completed before the start of this work, which ones are started after its completion, which are extremely important to complete simultaneously with this work.

· Event coding rule.

All events in the matrix must have independent numbers. For this event, encode integers without gaps. In this case, the subsequent event is assigned the next number only after the assignment of numbers to all previous events.

Rules for specifying activities, expectations and dependencies:

1) the arrow (work) should always be directed from the event with a lower number to the event with a higher number;

2) the belonging of the work (arrow) to a certain horizontal "corridor" is given by its horizontal section;

3) the duration of work or waiting is determined by the horizontal projection of the distance between the corresponding events;

4) dependencies between jobs without waiting are indicated by vertical arrows. In this case, their projection on the time axis is equal to zero;

5) the tilt of the arrows along the time axis to the left is not allowed.

Let's consider the procedure for constructing a network matrix using the example of the fragment "Preparation of proposals for improving the organization of project management in a construction trust" (Table 1).

Table 1

"Preparation of proposals for improving the organization of project management in a construction trust" (option)

Let's transfer the presented works to the network matrix, taking into account their sequence, duration and performers (Fig. 11).

Figure 11 - Network matrix of the fragment of the project "Preparation of proposals for

improving the organization of project management in a construction trust"

The advantage of the network matrix is ​​a visual display of the time parameters of the project, knowledge of which is extremely important for maneuvering project resources and managing the project as a whole.

dotted lines the network diagram shows the time reserves during the performance of work.

Works that do not have time reserves form critical path. For the considered example (Fig. 11), one of the critical paths is the sequence of works: 1 - 3 - 6 - 11 - 13. Their total duration is 6 days.

The duration of the critical path allows you to determine the directive duration of the project:

,

where is the duration of the critical path;

Probability of project implementation under given conditions. The normal value of this indicator is in the range from 0.6 to 1.0;

Duration dispersion i th activity on the critical path.

The actual duration of an individual job is random variable with a normal distribution law. Its parameters can be calculated using approximate formulas:

;

,

where , , , - the most probable, optimistic, expected and pessimistic duration of work, respectively;

The variance of the actual duration of work.

Main parameters of the network model

The main parameters of the network model include:

Event number (N);

Early date of occurrence of an event - ϶ᴛᴏ the earliest possible moment of occurrence j-th event and it is determined by the time of execution of all the work preceding this event. It is obvious that the early date of occurrence of the event can occur when all the jobs of the maximum duration path are completed:

T (P) j = max (T (P) i + t ij), for (i,j)нV + j ,

where V + j , is the set of arcs on the network model included in the event j;

Late date of occurrence of the event - ϶ᴛᴏ the latest of the admissible moments of occurrence i-th event, at which it is still possible to perform all subsequent work without exceeding the deadline for the entire project. The determination of the late dates of occurrence of events is carried out strictly sequentially in descending order of event numbers, starting from the final event, according to the formula:

T (P) i = min (T (P) j - t ij), for (i,j)нV - i ,

where V - i , is the set of arcs on the network model coming out of the event i;

Reserve - ϶ᴛᴏ the difference between the late and early dates of the event:

R k \u003d T (P) k - T (P) k .

The parameters of the network model are specified in the vertices as follows:

Consider the definition basic parameters network model on the example of the project ͵ the initial data for which are presented in Table 2.

table 2

Initial data for the project

The network model of this project is shown in fig. 12.

3.3 Matrix of separation of administrative tasks of management

For a clear division of job duties and responsibilities in the process of project management, a matrix for the division of administrative tasks of management (matrix of RAM) is being developed.

The RAZU matrix is ​​a table, the title of the rows of which indicate the management tasks to be solved, and the title of the graph indicates the performers (officials, divisions and services). At the intersection of the lines and the graph, the relation of the corresponding executor to the corresponding task is indicated by a conventional sign (Table 3).

Table 3

Matrix of separation of administrative tasks of management (option)

Let's consider a possible variant of conventional signs of the RAZU matrix for various aspects of management.

Symbols for determining responsibility for solving a problem:

I am the sole decision (signed) and personal responsibility;

! – personal responsibility and participation in collegial decision-making (with a signature);

P - participation in collegial decision-making without the right to sign.

Symbols for defining activities for the implementation of tasks:

P - planning;

O - organization;

K - control;

X - coordination;

A is activation.

Symbols for identifying activities for the preparation and maintenance tasks implementation:

C - approval, sighting;

T - direct execution;

M - preparation of proposals;

± – calculations;

- non-participation in work.

To determine the attitude of each performer to each management task, an expert survey is used, most often on the basis of a preference matrix.

The preference matrix is ​​a ϶ᴛᴏ square matrix, the rows and columns of which correspond to the set of conventional signs of the matrix ONCE (Table 4). Each element of the preference matrix is ​​an integer:

0 - if the character corresponding to the row is less preferable than the character corresponding to the column;

1 - if the signs are equivalent;

2 - if the character corresponding to the row is preferable to the character corresponding to the column.

Table 4

It follows from the table that, for example, the symbol "T" is preferable to the symbols "I", "P", "O", "A" and "K", is equivalent to the symbol "X" and is inferior to the symbol "!".

It is obvious that all symbols are equivalent to themselves, in connection with this, the diagonal of the matrix is ​​unit.

For each row of the matrix, the sum of the values ​​of its elements is calculated and this sum is considered as an estimate of the significance of the corresponding symbol by a separate expert.

Each expert fills in a preference matrix for each performer. Further, in relation to a particular performer, for each symbol, the average value of its significance is calculated based on the estimates of all experts. As a rule, this is the arithmetic mean or median. Based on the average values, the symbols are assigned ranks and one of them with the highest rank is selected, or several of them in case of equal ranks.

Determination of labor intensity coefficients for solving control problems ( To r) is also made on the basis of filling in the preference matrix by the experts. At the same time, tasks are compared according to their complexity. As a result, for each task, an average is obtained conditional value laboriousness. When dividing this value by the sum of similar values ​​for all tasks, the value is obtained To t.

PROJECT PLANNING

4.1 Basic concepts and definitions

Essence of planning consists in:

a) setting goals and ways to achieve them based on the formation of a set of works (measures, actions) that must be performed;

b) application of methods and means for the implementation of these works;

c) linking the resources necessary for their implementation;

d) coordination of actions of organizations - participants of the project.

The activity of developing plans covers all stages of the creation and execution of the project. It begins with the participation of the project manager (project manager) in the process of developing the concept of the project, continues with the selection of strategic decisions for the project, as well as with the development of its details, including the preparation of contract proposals, the conclusion of contracts, the execution of works, and ends with the completion of the project.

On the planning stage all necessary parameters for project implementation are determined:

Duration for each of the controlled elements of the project;

The need for labor, material, technical and financial resources;

Terms of delivery of raw materials, materials, components and technological equipment;

Terms and volumes of involvement of design, construction and other organizations.

Project planning processes and procedures should ensure that the project is feasible within the specified time frame, at the lowest possible cost, within standard resource costs, and of adequate quality.

The good organized project a specific management body should be responsible for the implementation of each goal: the project manager for all goals (project mission), responsible executors for private goals, etc. That is, the tree of project goals should match the structure of the unit of the organization responsible for the implementation of the project. For this, a so-called responsibility matrix is ​​being developed, which determines functional responsibilities project executors, specifies the set of works for the implementation of which they are personally responsible.

The higher the level of the governing body, the more generalized, aggregated indicators it makes decisions on the management of subordinate units. With an increase in the level of the hierarchy, the time interval between the issuance of plan targets, the control of their execution, etc., increases. operate independently, independent of units of the same or adjacent level. The independent functioning of subdivisions should be provided with certain reserves of resources, which are also extremely important to plan.

The main purpose of planning consists in building a project implementation model. It is necessary to coordinate the activities of project participants͵ with its help, the order in which work should be performed, etc. is determined.

Planning is a collection of interconnected mutual relations procedures.
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The first step in project planning is to develop initial plans, which are the basis for the development of the project budget͵ determination of resource needs, organization of project support͵ conclusion of contracts, etc.
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Project planning precedes project control and is the basis for its application, as a comparison is made between planned and actual indicators.

4.2 Planning processes

Planning is one of the most important processes for a project, since the result of its implementation is usually a unique object, product or service. The scope and detail of planning is determined by the usefulness of the information that can be obtained as a result of the process and depends on the content (intention) of the project.

These processes can be repeated and be part of an iterative procedure that is performed until a certain result is achieved. For example, if the original project completion date is unacceptable, then the required resources, cost, and sometimes the scope of the project must be changed. The result in this case will be the agreed terms, volumes, nomenclature of resources, budget and content of the project ͵ corresponding to its goals. The planning process itself should not be completely algorithmized and automated, as it contains many uncertain parameters and often depends on random factors. For this reason, the plan options proposed as a result of planning may differ if they are developed by different teams, the specialists in which assess the impact of external factors on the project differently.

Basic planning processes can be repeated several times, both during the entire project and its individual phases. The main planning processes include:

♦ project scope planning and documentation;

♦ description of the scope of the project͵ determination of the basic stages of the project implementation͵ their decomposition into smaller and manageable elements;

♦ drawing up a budget, estimating the cost of resources required to carry out the work of the project;

♦ definition of works, formation of a list of specific works that ensure the achievement of project goals;

♦ arrangement (sequence) of works, determination and documentation of technological dependencies and restrictions on works;

♦ assessment of the duration of work, labor costs and other resources required to perform individual work;

♦ scheduling, analysis of technological dependencies of work execution, work durations and resource requirements;

♦ resource planning, determining what resources (people, equipment, materials) and in what quantities will be required to carry out the work of the project. Determining in what terms the work can be completed, taking into account the limited resources;

♦ budgeting͵ linking estimated costs to specific activities;

♦ creation (development) of the project plan͵ collection of the results of other planning processes and their combination into a common document.

Supporting planning processes are performed as a matter of utmost importance. These include:

♦ quality planning, defining quality standards appropriate for a given project and finding ways to achieve them;

♦ organizational planning (design), definition, examination, documentation and distribution of project roles, responsibilities and subordination;

♦ selection of personnel, formation of the project team at all stages of the life cycle of the project͵ selection of the necessary human resources included in the project and working in it;

♦ communication planning, determination of information and communication needs of the project participants: to whom and what information is needed, when and how it should be delivered to them;

♦ identifying and assessing risks, determining which factor of uncertainty and to what extent can affect the course of project implementation͵ determination of favorable and unfavorable scenarios for project implementation͵ documentation of risks;

♦ supply planning, determining what, how, when and with whom to purchase and supply;

♦ planning proposals, documenting product requirements and identifying potential suppliers.

4.3 Planning levels

Determination of planning levels is also the subject of planning and is carried out for each specific project, taking into account its specifics, scale, geography, timing, etc. During this process, the type and number of planning levels corresponding to the allocated work packages for the project, their content and temporal relationships are determined.

Plans (graphs, networks) as an expression of the results of planning processes should form in the aggregate a certain pyramidal structure that has the properties of aggregating information, differentiated by levels of awareness management, and separated by development timeframes (short-term, medium-term and long-term). The levels of planning and the system of plans should be built using the principles of "feedback", ensuring a constant comparison of planned data with actual data and have great flexibility, relevance and efficiency.

Aggregation of calendar-network plans (schedules) is an important and highly effective tool for managing complex projects. Using this tool, project participants can receive network plans of varying degrees of aggregation, in scope and content, corresponding to their rights and obligations under the project. Simplified, the aggregation of network plans for three levels should be presented in the form of some information pyramid (Fig. 13). Here, based on the detailed network plan (at the bottom of the pyramid), only the plan with key stages (milestones) is passed to the next level of management.

Network plans are agglomerated due to the fact that the general network plan consists of many private network plans. In each of these private plans, the longest path is determined. These paths are then put in place of individual parts of the network. With this incremental aggregation, layered network plans are obtained.

Usually there are the following types of plans:

♦ conceptual plan;

♦ strategic plan project implementation;

♦ tactical (detailed, operational) plans.

Conceptual planning, the result of which is a conceptual plan, is a process of developing the main project documentation, technical requirements, estimates, integrated schedules, control and management procedures. Conceptual planning is carried out in initial period project life cycle.

Strategic planning is a process of developing strategic, enlarged, long-term plans.

Detailed (operational, tactical) planning associated with the development of tactical, detailed plans (schedules) for operational management at the level of responsible executors.

Plan (aggregation) levels should correspond to the levels of management. The higher the level, the more aggregated, generalized information is used for management. Each of the levels has its own representation of the input data, which are usually:

Contractual requirements and obligations;

Description of available resources and restrictions on their use (terms, intensity, placement, etc.);

Estimated and cost models;

Documentation for similar developments.

Strategic planning level related to two main questions:

What are we going to do?

How will we do it?

As a rule, private (specific) goals of the project may change as it is implemented, while strategic goals project͵ its mission remain unchanged. For this reason, the strategic planning stage is of particular importance. Here, the utmost clarity should be obtained on the project, on the main stages of its implementation, on the goals to be achieved.

Strategic planning model may contain several sub-stages (Fig. 14). The sub-stages of strategic planning may not have a definite, predetermined sequence. As a rule, they are performed several times, when the information obtained after the next stage of the analysis or the execution of the procedure is used at the next stage, returns again to the previous or previous stages with already refined or some additional information.

SWOT analysis methods(Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats - benefits, weak sides, opportunities, threats) are often used for strategic planning purposes, especially for assessing the specific parameters of the organization itself and its environment. Table 5 is used to conduct a SWOT analysis. To complete it, it is extremely important to answer the following questions:

♦ what are our advantages, how can we realize them?

♦ What are our weaknesses, how can we reduce their impact?

♦ what opportunities exist, how can we capitalize on them?

♦ What could prevent threats?

♦ What could we do to overcome the problem?

Table 5

Table for SWOT analysis

According to the results of the SWOT analysis, in particular, it is possible to determine which of the strategies should include the strategy for a particular project.

Twelve possible strategies for projects:

♦ construction-oriented;

♦ finance-based, involving non-trivial financing arrangements, possibly with debt or subsidies, and where special attention is paid to financial flows or cost of capital;

♦ state;

♦ design, when the design technology provides significant advantages over other technologies;

♦ built on customer-contractor relations, which uses various forms of partnership between the customer and the contractor;

♦ technological, focused on the use of the most modern, but also more risk-prone technologies;

♦ commissioning oriented;

♦ providing optimization of the relation of expenses, quality and terms;

♦ resource-oriented, especially in case of limited or high cost of resources, their scarcity and uniqueness;

♦ focused on the scale of the problems being solved or on a given volume, for example, providing a given number of jobs in the region;

♦ oriented towards chance or unforeseen contingencies;

♦ passive, when there is no strategy at all as such and behavior environment unpredictable.

4.4 Work breakdown structure

The structure of the division (decomposition) of works (SPP)(WBS - Work Breakdown Structure) - a hierarchical structure of the sequential decomposition of the project into subprojects, work packages of various levels, detailed work packages. CPP is the basic tool for creating a project management system, as it allows you to solve the problems of organizing work, distributing responsibilities, estimating costs, creating a reporting system, effectively supporting the procedures for collecting information on the performance of work and displaying the results in an information management system to summarize work schedules, cost, resources and completion dates.

CPP allows you to align the project plan with the needs of the customer, presented in the form of specifications or job descriptions. On the other hand, CPP is a convenient management tool for the project manager, as it allows you to:

♦ determine the work, work packages that ensure the achievement of subgoals (partial goals) of the project;

♦ check whether all the goals will be achieved as a result of the project implementation;

♦ to create a convenient reporting structure corresponding to the objectives of the project;

♦ define milestones (key results) at the appropriate level of detail in the plan, which should become milestones for the project;

♦ allocate responsibility for achieving the goals of the project among its executors and thereby ensure that all project activities are accountable and will not fall out of sight;

♦ Provide team members with an understanding of the overall goals and objectives of the project.

Work packages usually correspond to the lowest level of detail of the CPP and consist of detailed works. Work packages can be subdivided into steps if they are of the utmost importance. Neither detailed work, nor, moreover, steps, are elements of the CPP.

CPP development is either top-down or bottom-up, or both approaches are used simultaneously. The iterative process used for this purpose may include different approaches to information discovery. For example, the technique of ʼʼbrainstormingʼʼ is used, carried out both within the framework of the project team and with the involvement of representatives of other project participants. As a result of the construction of the SPP, all the goals of the project should be taken into account and all the necessary prerequisites for its successful implementation should be created.

CPP Detail Level depends on the content of the project͵ the qualifications and experience of the project team͵ the applied management system, the principles of distribution of responsibility in the project team͵ the existing document management and reporting system, etc. In the process of creating a CPP, detailed technical specifications or only functional specifications with requirements for I work in the most general way.

Hierarchical structure of the project͵ created on the basis of CPP, allows you to apply the procedures for collecting and processing information on the progress of work on the project in accordance with management levels, work packages, milestones, etc., to summarize information on work schedules, costs, resources and deadlines.

Project management system should include the ability to present information on the planned and actual data of the project in accordance with the CPP structure, except, of course, standard layouts built on the basis of filters by project indicators (terms, resources, responsible, etc.).

The basis for the decomposition of the CPP can be:

♦ components of a product (object, service, line of business) resulting from the implementation of the project;

♦ process or functional elements of the activities of the organization implementing the project;

♦ stages of the life cycle of the project͵ main phases;

♦ divisions of the organizational structure;

♦ geographic location for spatially dispersed projects.

In practice, combined CPP structures are used, built using several decomposition bases.

The art of project decomposition consists in the skillful coordination of the basic structures of the project, which include, first of all:

Organizational structure (OBS - Organization Breakdown Structure);

Structure

ORGANIZATIONAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT TOOLS - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "ORGANIZATIONAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT TOOLS" 2017, 2018.

In order to cope with the inherent difficulties and uncertainty of each project, the manager must break the project into separate stages and determine the risk. Then, at each stage, a list of tasks is formed.

Exercise is an obligatory part of the work that must be completed in a predetermined manner and within a predetermined time frame. For ease of verification, it should be small (perhaps no more than 10 man-hours). Many tasks tend to self-evolve rather than self-regulate, so the following must be determined for each task:

uniqueness of the task;

deadline(days, hours, etc.), variable and rigidly established duration of work;

start and end dates:

planned (in accordance with the original plan);

expected (in accordance with subsequent changes in the plan);

real;

deterrents and restrictions;

necessary resources for the performance of work(spatial, technical, technological, human, financial, etc.) and their uniqueness, availability and alternative use for other works and projects;

connection with other tasks(preceding and subsequent tasks).

There are two main methods for planning and coordinating the execution of large-scale projects:

PERT (program evaluation and review technique) – program evaluation and review method) and

CPM (critical path method) – critical path method.

These methods appeared independently of each other. CPM was developed dupont Corporation in the 1950s 20th century to help plan overhaul corporation factory. PERT was developed around the same time by the U.S. Department of the Navy to plan a missile development project Polaris. The methods are practically the same; in the literature, the term is most often used. PERT.

PERT/time - it is a planning and management method that has four features: network schedule, time estimates, determination of time slack and critical path, and the possibility of taking actions to adjust the schedule.

Many projects, be it construction, marketing, development and production of a new product, can be considered as a set of independent operations, the logical sequence of which can be displayed in the form of a network diagram. It is a chain of works (operations) and events that reflect their sequence and connection in the process of achieving the goal (Fig. 16). The network originates from a single node (a null event) and ends with a single event when the project is completed.

critical path- the longest chain of interrelated, sequential tasks for which the lead time is equal to zero and which determine the minimum amount of time required to complete the project.

Fig.16. Project Network Schedule

Work-event The numbers above the arrows show the duration of the work; - the work of the critical path;

When analyzing the critical path method, determine:

earliest start date- this is the earliest possible start time, provided that all previous operations on the critical path are completed as quickly as possible. This due date across all activities is calculated from left to right by adding the duration of the preceding activity to its own earliest start date for the activity;

most late deadline the start of the operation- the deadline for the start of the operation so that it does not cause a delay in the implementation of the entire project;

latest completion date– the date by which the network operation must be completed so that the next one can start on time, and the project as a whole can be completed as soon as possible. To calculate the latest finish date, you first need to calculate the earliest start dates of activities from left to right in the network. Then, backwards, based on the earliest possible finish date for the project, determine the latest allowable time for each activity to finish.

Activities on the critical path do not have the slightest amount of slack.

Reserve time- the amount of free time for which the execution of an operation within the framework of the project can be delayed. There are two ways to calculate reserves:

full reserve- all available free time, in which the overall duration of the project will not suffer (for example, if an operation that takes 2 days can start on the 3rd day, and the next one should start on the 9th day of working on the project, then there is a complete gap in 4 days (4 = 9 - 2 - 3):

Most deterministic projects use a single estimate of how long to complete work based on resource quotas (e.g., 40-hour work week). In less certain cases it is recommended to evaluate the duration of each job on the basis of three estimates: optimistic, pessimistic and most probable.

In more complex projects with a high degree of uncertainty, PERT an assumption is made that the duration of pioneering work is a random variable that obeys the beta distribution.

Method PERT/expenses represents a further development of the method in the direction of optimizing network graphs by cost and is characterized by:

structural analysis of project work;

definition of types of work (R & D, production, marketing);

construction of network graphs;

establishing the functional dependence of work on their duration;

finding the duration of work that minimizes the cost of the project, given the deadlines for the implementation of the entire project;

control over the progress of work;

development of corrective actions, if necessary.

After the deadlines and cost of each work are determined, the necessary material and labor resources and a budget is drawn up for each type of work, as well as the budget for the entire project.

During the course of the project, a cost-to-completion estimate is periodically made and actual costs are compared with budgeted costs. In the event of a delay or cost overrun, the project manager has the opportunity to take corrective action. Network schedules and cost estimates are reviewed from time to time to keep them in line with actual and planned project changes.

In this way, this approach allows you to draw up detailed plans and schedules, determine the duration of work and their provision of resources, describe the sequential relationships that exist between actions and show which of them are crucial for completing the project on time, calculate the critical path. By isolating critical operations, managers can ensure they are properly monitored and ensure that all the resources needed for these operations are delivered in a timely manner.

The critical path can be adjusted in the following ways:

increase resources;

review tasks on the critical path, reduce their duration, perhaps eliminate some;

loosen restrictions, increasing risk;

detail tasks, increasing the number of relationships.

Advantages and disadvantages of the method PERT are given in table 56.

Table 56 - Advantages and limitations of the methodPERT

In addition to the critical path method, there is also a step-by-step control method that follows the same pattern as the critical path method, but recognizes that the execution time of each operation is difficult to foresee in advance, and therefore makes an allowance for this.

For a project containing dozens of jobs, finding the critical path can be done manually. To manage large projects, where the number of works exceeds hundreds and thousands, automatic tools for project management have been widely used. (project for Windows). For example, the technique PRINCE(Projects in Controlled Environments) is used by the UK government in information technology.

9.2 Gantt Chart and Network Matrices

Another analysis tool is Gantt chart - a diagram depicting tasks in the form of segments on a timeline. The length of the segment corresponds to the term of the task. The entire project is presented in the form of a calendar, which allows you to use it to control and show the percentage of completion of the task.

A variety of Gantt charts are network matrices, for the compilation of which the following characteristics are determined (Table 57):

resource provision;

the sequence of work execution, taking into account the maximum possible parallelization of work;

performers of each job.

Table57 - List of works for building a network matrix

The network matrix is ​​a graphic representation of the project implementation processes, where all work (management, production, etc.) is shown in a certain technological sequence and interconnection. The network matrix is ​​combined with a calendar-scale time grid that has horizontal and vertical “corridors”. Horizontal "corridors" characterize the degree of management, structural unit or official performing a particular job; vertical - stage and individual operations of the project management process, occurring in time. When building a network matrix, three basic concepts are used: "work" (including expectation and dependence), "event" and "path".

On the graph, work is depicted as a solid arrow. The concept of “work” includes the process of waiting, i.e. a process that requires not labor and resources, but time, which is depicted by a dotted arrow with a designation of the waiting time above it. The dependency between events indicates that there is a connection between the activities and that there is no need to spend time and resources.

The most important advantage of the network matrix is ​​that there is no need to calculate the matrix parameters, since they are clearly shown in the figure itself (see Fig. 29).

Picture29 -Network matrix example (fragment)

Network matrices should be used at all stages of the project life cycle. This will make it possible to present the entire project implementation process in a visual form, as well as to identify the composition and structure of work and acceptable means and methods for their implementation, analyze the relationship between performers and work, prepare a science-based coordinated plan for the implementation of the entire complex of project work for more efficient use of available resources and reduction of terms. It is also possible to quickly process large amounts of information, predict the progress of work on the critical path and focus the attention of project managers on them. Using the mathematical apparatus, it is possible to determine the degree of probability of project implementation and to correctly allocate responsibility.