Religious culture. Religious systems

religious culture

THE CONCEPT OF RELIGIOUS CULTURE

After a rather long break, our experience again includes a huge cultural layer of religious consciousness, rituals and art. The world of religious culture is "arranged" in a completely different way than the world of phenomena of spiritual life familiar to us. The experience of its comprehension has been largely lost, and a person who comes into contact with an array of religious culture for the first time experiences tangible difficulties in understanding and mastering it. In today's culture, much of the world of former religious values ​​and attitudes is transferred to a different context, a different environment: church music sounds from the stage, icons hang in a museum or are in private collections, elements of Orthodox ritual can be encountered in the most unexpected and inappropriate situations (for example, baptism of recent militant atheists). We are far from a sweeping condemnation of the return of religiosity, and from an uncritical acceptance of the ways in which this return is being carried out. But, looking at the icon at the exhibition, being baptized during the service, listening to the chime of bells, one should know what elements of the cultural system these rituals or objects were, what they were originally created for, what meaning they had. (277)

Tkachev V.S., Tkacheva M.L. The specificity of the spiritual

culture of Russia (on the example of religious

art) / Philosophy: Proc. allowance / Under the total.

ed. B. A. Kislova, V. A. Tueva, M.L. Tkacheva. -

Irkutsk: Publishing House of BGUEP, 2004. - P. 277.

We must try, at least mentally, to imagine religious culture as a system. From this point of view, it is important to remember, firstly, that historically there were three varieties of religious culture, each of which had its own view of reality: one of them - in the Ancient World, the other - in the Middle Ages, the third - in the New World; and secondly, to imagine that, in spite of this peculiarity, religious culture as a whole had one idea common to all varieties. Idea of ​​One God. Religious culture recreated the image of this force, and therefore was the idea of ​​the One, expanded into a system of literary and artistic images, scientific and philosophical concepts.

RELIGIOUS CULTURE OF THE ERA OF ASCENDING DEVELOPMENT OF THE MIDDLE AGES

A. CHURCH CUSTOMS AND RITUALS

Church worship as a way to know God

Public worship or church services is the main thing for which our Orthodox churches are intended. Orthodox church service consists of reading and singing prayers, reading the Word of God and sacred actions (rites) performed according to a certain order, that is, in order, by the clergy.

It is during divine services that Orthodox Christians enter into mysterious communion with God through joint prayer and participation in the sacraments, especially in the Sacrament of Holy Communion, and receive from God grace-filled forces for a righteous life.

In church worship there are, as it were, three circles: daily, weekly, or weekly, and annual.

DAILY CIRCLE OF SERVICES

Every day (during the day) the Orthodox Church performs evening, morning and afternoon services in churches. Each of these divine services consists, in turn, of three types of services, collectively united in a daily circle of divine services:

evening - from the 9th hour, Vespers and Compline;

morning - from Midnight Office, Matins and the 1st hour;

daytime - from the 3rd hour, the 6th hour and the Divine Liturgy.

Thus, the entire daily circle consists of nine services.

In Orthodox worship, much is borrowed from the worship of the Old Testament times. For example, the beginning of a new day is considered not midnight, (139) but six o'clock in the evening. That is why the first service of the daily cycle is Vespers (the 9th hour completes the daily cycle of the previous day).

At Vespers, the Church recalls the main events of the Sacred History of the Old Testament: the creation of the world by God, the fall of the forefathers, the legislation of Moses and the ministry of the prophets. During the service, Christians give thanks to the Lord for the day they have lived.

After Vespers, according to the Church Rule, it is necessary to serve Compline. In a certain sense, these are public prayers for the coming dream, at which the descent of Christ into hell and the liberation of the righteous from the power of the devil are remembered.

At midnight, it is supposed to perform the third service of the daily circle - the Midnight Office. This service was established to remind Christians of the Second Coming of the Savior and the Last Judgment.

Before sunrise, Matins is served - one of the longest services. It is dedicated to the events of the Savior's earthly life and contains many prayers of repentance and thanksgiving.

At about six o'clock in the morning they make the 1st hour. This is the name of a short service at which the Orthodox Church recalls the stay of Jesus Christ at the trial of the high priest Caiaphas.

The 3rd hour (nine o'clock in the morning) is served in remembrance of the events that took place in Pilate's praetorium, where the Savior was sentenced to death; and in the Upper Room of Zion, where the Holy Spirit descended upon the apostles.

The 6th hour (noon) is the time of the crucifixion of the Lord, and the 9th hour (three o'clock in the afternoon) is the time of His death on the cross. These events are dedicated to the above services.

Modern liturgical practice has brought its own changes to the prescriptions of the Charter. So, in parish churches, Compline is served only during Great Lent, and Midnight Office - once a year, on the eve of Easter. The 9th hour is not always served. (140)

The remaining six services of the daily cycle are combined into two groups of three. In the evening, Vespers, Matins, and the 1st hour are performed one after the other. Modern All-Night Vigils last two to four hours in parishes and three to six hours in monasteries. In the morning, the 3rd, 6th hours and Divine Liturgy. In churches where there are many parishioners, on Sundays and holidays there are two Liturgies - early and late. Both of them are preceded by the reading of the hours ... (141)

In addition to the divine services of the daily circle, there are also services performed for the special needs or needs of Christians - the so-called "requisitions". It:

Funeral services, baptisms, weddings, unctions;

Prayers - services consisting of the Canon to the Savior, the Mother of God or saints. There are prayers of supplication, thanksgiving, for the blessing of water, houses, etc. (153)

WEEKLY SERVICE CIRCLE

In addition to the daily cycle, in the life of the Church there is a weekly or weekly circle of services.

With each day of the week, the Church unites special sacred memories. On the first day of the week - Sunday - the Church remembers the Resurrection of Christ (hence its name). On Monday, she glorifies the incorporeal heavenly powers, which, after the Mother of God, remembered daily, occupy the first place in the face of the Saints; on Tuesday glorifies the prophets and the Forerunner of the Lord - John the Baptist; on Wednesday he remembers the betrayal of the Lord by Judas to the rulers of the Jews; Thursday is dedicated to the memory of the holy (153) apostles and St. Nicholas of Myra; Friday - the remembrance of the Lord's death on the cross; Saturday - the glorification of the Mother of God, the holy martyrs and all the saints who have reached peace in the Lord, as well as the commemoration of all the dead in the faith and hope of eternal life.

Accordingly, with the remembrance of these events and persons, the unchanging circle of the weekly worship includes some hymns and prayers that change every day of the week. (153)

ANNUAL SERVICE CIRCLE

The annual circle of worship is the order of services throughout the year. The liturgical year begins in autumn. Every day of the year is dedicated to the memory of certain saints or special sacred events - holidays and fasts.

The special hymns, prayers and ceremonies established in honor of these events and persons actually form the circle of the annual divine service. In it, the liturgical features are most distinguished by the days of great holidays and fasts. The All-Night Vigil is always served on the occasion of great holidays. (153)

POSTS

Fasting is a very ancient church institution. The custom of fasting dates back at least 4,000 years! As stated in Old Testament Jews especially fasted in times of danger or public calamity and considered fasting in these difficult times to be their religious duty. In those distant times, everyone fasted: the Old Testament prophets, and kings, and ordinary Jews. The fasts were observed with special strictness, and they abstained not only from food, but also from other sensual pleasures...

The Orthodox Church glorifies fasting with such stichera, that is, verses: “Lent has come, the mother of chastity, the accuser of sin and the patron of repentance, the way of life of angels and the salvation of people.”

On average, there are from 180 to 195 fasting days a year, i.e. for half a year, according to Orthodox customs, only lenten food is eaten. On fasting days, food of animal origin is excluded - meat, milk, eggs, butter, cheese, cottage cheese. And with strict fasting and fish. Bread, vegetables, fruits are consumed in moderation.

How much influence food has on our spiritual life and work can be easily seen from our own experience: try after a hearty meal to do some serious mental work and you will see how difficult it is! And praying at this time is even more difficult!

Some people deny fasting for medical reasons. But it is precisely medicine that considers temporary abstinence from meat food useful for healthy (and sometimes sick) people. It should be noted (159) that the Church exempts the sick, for whom fasting is contraindicated, and pregnant women from fasting. Strict fasting is also optional for travelers.

Unfortunately, there are many people who think that fasting consists only in eating only lean food (and plenty), but otherwise do not change their lifestyle, forgetting about fasting and spiritual.

A fasting person should remember the words of John Chrysostom: “Whoever limits fasting to one abstinence from food, he greatly dishonors him. It is not only the mouth that must fast, but let the eye, and the ear, and the hands, and the feet, and our whole body, fast.”

The church stichera reveals the essence of fasting: "True fasting is to move away from all evil, to restrain one's tongue, to suppress anger, to refrain from passions, condemning one's neighbors, lying and breaking an oath."

Therefore, it is necessary to combine two fasts - spiritual and bodily. St. John Chrysostom taught: “What is the use when we abstain from birds and fish, but bite and eat our brothers? Fasting also keeps the body healthy: not burdened with food, it does not accept illnesses, but, becoming light, it is strengthened to receive holy gifts. ... be merciful, meek, kind, quiet, long-suffering, compassionate, unforgiving, so that God will accept your fast. And our great compatriot Ambrose of Optinsky, when asked what should be eaten in fasting, answered: “Everything is possible, only people are not allowed.”

Fasting is also a time of intensified struggle with passions. The Monk Barsanuphius the Great wrote: “Bodily fasting means nothing without the spiritual fasting of the inner man, which consists of protecting oneself from passions. This fast is pleasing to God and will reward for you the lack of bodily fasting (if you are weak in body).

Thus, we can say that fasting is not a goal, but a means of achieving spiritual values, communication and unity with God. Through fasting, we humble the earthly person in ourselves, our flesh, and, being cleansed from sins, we make the time of fasting a time of repentance and renewal of our souls. (160)

As priest Alexander Elchaninov wrote, in society “there is a fundamental misunderstanding of fasting. It is not the fast itself that is more important, as the non-eating of this and that, or as depriving oneself of something in the form of punishment. Fasting is only a proven way to achieve the desired results - through the exhaustion of the body, to reach the refinement of spiritual abilities, obscured by the flesh, and thereby facilitate one's approach to God.

Fasting is not hunger. A diabetic, a fakir, a yogi, a prisoner, and just a beggar are starving. Nowhere in the services of Great Lent is fasting referred to as non-eating of meat and so on. Everywhere there is one call: “Let us fast, brethren, bodily; let us fast also spiritually.” Therefore, fasting only then has a religious meaning when it is combined with spiritual exercises.

All posts are divided into multi-day and one-day.

MULTI-DAY POSTS

There are four multi-day fasts in a year. The most important and strict is great post, or Holy Forty Day (lasts 40 days). Passion Week adjoins it - a week of very strict fasting. Lent is established in imitation of the forty-day fast of our Lord Jesus Christ, which He kept in the wilderness. With it, we worthily meet Easter, the Bright Resurrection of Christ.

Petrov post- begins a week after the Trinity (from the week of All Saints) until July 12 - the day of the holy apostles Peter and Paul. Its duration depends on the time of Easter.

Assumption post- from August 14 to August 28. Fasting before the feast of the Assumption of the Most Holy Theotokos.

Christmas, or Filippov, - from November 28 to January 7 - the feast of the Nativity of Christ.

ONE DAY POSTS

Wednesday and Friday throughout the year, with the exception of continuous weeks and Christmas time (from January 7 to January 18). On Wednesday - in memory of the betrayal of the Lord to torment by Judas, on Friday - in memory of His suffering and death on the cross. (161)

Usually, through fasting, the Church prepares us for a worthy meeting and celebration of the great Orthodox holidays.

CHURCH HOLIDAYS

Holidays are such days that are established by the Church in honor and memory of our Lord Jesus Christ and for the glorification of the Holy Trinity, in honor of the Most Holy Theotokos and the saints.

All Christians must holidays come to the temple to take part in the church celebration. After all, church holidays are not just a tribute to the past. By participating in them, each believer joins the experience of the Church, experiences the great events of the gospel and church history, and thus goes through a whole school of spiritual growth.

All holidays in the year according to their content are divided into Lord's, Mother of God and feasts of the saints.

According to the time of celebration, the holidays are divided into motionless, which occur every year on the same day of the month, and mobile, which, although they occur on the same days of the week, fall on different days of the month in accordance with the time of the celebration of Easter.

According to the solemnity of the church service, the holidays are divided into great, medium and small. Easter is “a feast of feasts and a celebration of celebrations,” which is why it stands out in particular.

There are twelve main feasts of the church year, which is why they are called the Twelve. These are the Nativity of the Virgin, the Entry into the Temple of the Virgin, the Annunciation, the Nativity of Christ, the Baptism of the Lord (or Epiphany), the Presentation, the Transfiguration of the Lord, the Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem, the Ascension of the Lord, the Feast of the Holy Trinity, the Assumption of the Virgin and the Exaltation of the Cross of the Lord.

In addition to the great twelfth holidays, there are Great holidays, both universal (for the entire Russian Orthodox Church) and local (for individual regions and even cities). (162)

The Great Holidays include:

day of the Beheading of John the Baptist;

the day of the Nativity of John the Baptist (the Baptist);

feast of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos;

the death of the apostle and evangelist John the Theologian;

holiday in honor of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God;

a feast in honor of St. Nicholas of Myra, the miracle worker;

holiday in honor of the chief apostles Peter and Paul.

Many holidays are associated with the names of saints. The church honors the saints every day. The host of Christian saints is so large that it is not possible to solemnly celebrate the memory of all. Many saints' feasts are locally venerated. Among such holidays are the days of the glorification of the Monk Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky, the Monk Sergius and Herman of Valaam, the Monk Zosima of Vladimir, and others. therefore, a church celebration is celebrated, while in other places these holidays pass unnoticed by the laity.

Each holiday has its own hymns. The main ones are troparion and kontakion, they convey in a compressed form the meaning of the celebrated event. (163)

MYSTERIES OF THE CHURCH

In the very word "sacrament" its meaning comes through - "mysterious, secret, inaccessible to others."

Sacraments are called sacred actions established by God, through which an invisible saving power or the grace of the Holy Spirit is communicated to a person. Without the help of the Holy Spirit, we cannot do anything good, and therefore the Church in all the main moments of our life especially asks God to give us the grace of the Holy Spirit. Such church prayers and sacred rites, when, under the visible action of a priest over a person, through the prayer of the Church, the power of the Holy Spirit invisibly, secretly acts, and are called Sacraments.

Sacraments are different from all other prayer activities. At prayer services, requiems and other divine services, we ask for the mercy of God, the Lord's blessing. But whether we will receive the mercy we ask for, we do not know. In the Sacraments, however, the grace of the Holy Spirit is given to us without fail, as the means of our salvation promised by God.

The Orthodox Church has seven sacraments - Baptism, Confirmation, Communion, Repentance, Marriage, Unction and Priesthood. These seven Sacraments cover all the most important moments of human life.

Just as human life begins at birth, so Christian life begins in the Sacrament of Baptism. Just as a child needs help and guidance, life in Christ needs help and guidance. This strengthening and guiding grace is given to the newly baptized in the Sacrament of Chrismation.

To maintain bodily life, man needs food and drink; to prosper in spiritual life, a person is taught spiritual food and drink in the Sacrament of Communion. The human body is subject to ailments for which a person resorts to medicines; similarly, the spiritual life (199) is subject to moral diseases - sins, from which the Christian is healed in the Sacrament of Penance. Grace, which heals bodily illnesses and at the same time forgives sins, is given in the Mystery of the Unction. The Lord, having created man, blessed him for the continuation and multiplication of the human race and sanctified the union of husband and wife. Since this blessed union, due to the fall, has lost its original purity, a special grace is needed that gives purification and holiness to the marital union. She is communicated to those who love in the Sacrament of Marriage. Finally, for the performance of the Sacraments, the chosen ones, especially dedicated ones, are needed. Grace, which gives strength for the performance of the Sacraments, is served in the Sacrament of the Priesthood.

Faith and proper preparation are required of all who approach the Sacraments, so that the Sacrament does not turn to harm to their souls. But the Sacrament will certainly be performed, because it is the will of God, if, of course, it is performed correctly, according to a certain God-given order. (200)

ON BEHAVIOR IN THE TEMPLE

You should arrive at the temple ten to fifteen minutes before the start of the service. This time is usually enough to submit notes, buy and light candles, and venerate icons.

Approaching the temple, pious Christians, looking at the holy crosses and domes of the church, make the sign of the cross and bow from the waist. Rising to the porch, they again make the sign of the cross with a bow three times.

Entering the temple, you should stop near the door and make three bows with prayers ...

After that, notes are served, applied to the icons, candles are placed and they take a comfortable place, standing with reverence and fear of God.

According to ancient custom, men stand on the right side of the temple, women - on the left, leaving free passage from the main doors to the Royal Doors.

In addition, to this day one can observe the pious rule when women let the men go ahead during the Anointing, Communion, veneration of the festive icon and the Cross.

At the end of the service, the same prayers are read as at the entrance to the church.

Being in the temple of God, let us remember that we are in the presence of the Lord God, the Mother of God, holy angels and saints. (87)

Be afraid, voluntarily or involuntarily, to offend those praying and those shrines that surround us in the temple of God with your behavior.

If you came to the temple during the Divine Service, it is better to refrain from squeezing through the worshipers and placing candles in front of the icons. A candle is a sacrifice to God, but in this case, remember that another sacrifice is more pleasing - “a broken spirit”, a humble awareness of your sinfulness before the Lord, which will highlight all your desires and needs brighter than any candle.

If possible, refrain from remarks, unless, of course, there is obvious hooliganism or blasphemous behavior. It is permissible for a person who violates the norms of behavior to make comments in a delicate form, without irritability and arrogant instruction in his voice.

It is unacceptable to walk around the temple during the service, especially the conduct of conversations.

During worship in the Orthodox Church, they pray standing up, and how can one sit in the presence of God, because in prayers we turn to the King of kings, the Creator of the universe. Sitting is allowed only due to special infirmity, illness, so that, as Metropolitan Filaret (Drozdov) said: “It is better to think about God while sitting than standing about your feet.” However, you can not sit with your legs crossed or legs stretched out. Before you sit down, ask God to strengthen you physically. During the reading of the Gospel and especially important places of the Liturgy, you need to stand.

Parents, having come to the temple with their children, should observe their behavior and not allow them to distract the worshipers, play pranks, and laugh. A crying child should be tried to calm down, if this fails, you should leave the temple with the child. (88)

It is forbidden to enter the temple with animals and birds.

It should be applied to the icons, leaving aside bulky bags.

Approaching the Chalice during Communion should be with arms crossed on the chest - the right over the left.

During the censing of the temple, one should not turn around after the clergyman and stand with his back to the altar.

During the opening of the Royal Doors, you must bow.

Smokers are forbidden to smoke even on the street within the church fence. (89)

HOW TO PRAY IN THE TEMPLE

… Prayer is our conversation with God. We have everything from God and we have nothing of our own: life, abilities, health, food - everything is given by God. Therefore, in joy, and in sorrow, and in need, we must turn to God with prayer. What blood is to the body, prayer is to the soul. Prayer is called “the wings of the soul”, since sincere prayer detaches us from worldly fuss, elevates a person’s heart above heaven.

In the temple, all believers, as if with one mouth and heart, confess the Lord, and here He is closer to each one who prays and more likely to accept his prayers than anywhere else. The scarcity of the prayer of one is filled by the faith of the other, strengthened by the prayers of the clergy, affirmed by the presence of the Holy Mysteries, singing and reading of the Holy Scriptures. The Holy Fathers said that in church one prayer, “Lord, have mercy,” has much greater power than many prayers and prostrations at home.

Having come to the Church, a Christian turns to the Lord with a prayer, glorifying the greatness of God, thanking Him for mercy or asking for help and forgiveness of sins. Thus, according to the content of the prayer, there are laudatory, thanksgiving and petitionary.

In the Holy Gospel, the Savior Himself says: "When you stand in prayer, forgive, if you have anything against anyone." As St. Ephraim the Syrian wrote, “Look, beloved, so that it is not in vain (that is, not in vain. - Ed.) We work praying if we have enmity against anyone.” (93)

The teachers of the Church and the holy fathers commanded us to have, during prayer, first of all, humility and heartfelt contrition for our sins: if a person does not recognize himself as a sinner in his heart, then God will not hear him. Prayer, along with sincere humility and repentance, will certainly be heard. “On whom will I look,” the Lord says to us through the prophet, “only to the meek and silent and trembling at My words.”

Remember, “there is no greater sin,” according to the words of St. Theophan the Recluse, “than praying to God without fear, attention and reverence; pray with the tongue, and with the mind talk with the demons.

When you come to a church service, try not to be distracted and follow the service so that you can pray with everyone for exactly what the whole Church is praying for. During prayer, we must adjust our mind in such a way that we do not think about anything extraneous and focus all our attention only on the words of the prayer.

The saving power of church prayers, chants and readings depends on the feeling with which our hearts and minds accept them. It is absolutely necessary to delve into everything that takes place during church services. Then only at the church service will everyone warm their heart, arouse their conscience, enliven their soul, and enlighten their minds.

If the words of the prayers are not yet clear, then it is good to say the Jesus prayer to yourself: “Lord, Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner (s).”

Even without uttering the words of any specific prayers to yourself, but with reverence listening to everything that happens in the house of God, you are imbued with a general prayerful mood and are also a participant in conciliar prayer.

To express our feelings for God and the saints, the Church has given various prayers. Below we list those that every Christian should know from an early age. (94)

THE SIGN OF THE CROSS AND BOWINGS

More than twenty centuries ago, in the Roman Empire, the cross was an instrument of execution, an object of shame and horror. There was no execution more painful and shameful than the cross. She was subjected to the most desperate robbers and disturbers of public peace. To condemn a criminal to execution on the cross meant to deprive the unfortunate name of a person, to betray him to universal contempt. Such was the meaning of the cross in the ancient world.

And what is now the cross among Christians? He is an instrument of salvation, an object of reverent reverence for all.

Carrying a cross is not only the duty of every Christian, but also a special honor. Wherever we turn our eyes, we see the cross everywhere. He rises on the domes of temples, he always reclines on the throne of the church, he relentlessly abides on the chest of every Orthodox, he meets at birth into spiritual life (baptism) and blesses when he moves to the afterlife, he, finally, overshadows our graves.

Why did such a change take place, why did they begin to so reverently honor the cross, which they previously considered a shame? For the fact that on the cross it was pleasing to the Son of God to accept the death penalty for the sins of the whole world.

It was the Cross of Christ that made it possible for the Heavenly Father to heal the souls of sinners. Without the Cross, they would never have been forgiven or pardoned... The Cross opened the Kingdom of Heaven to us, because without the Cross of Jesus, even the greatest righteous would go to hell.

From the time that Jesus Christ died on the Cross, His invincible, incomprehensible Divine power communicated to the Cross, inhabited it and remained in it forever. The cross is so powerful and powerful because the power of Christ is mysteriously present in it. The Holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called, led by the tormentors to the execution on the cross, seeing the cross from afar, cried out with delight (101): “Rejoice, Cross, sanctified by the flesh of Christ, and decorated with His members, like Margaritas! Before my Lord ascended to you, you were terrible for the earthly, but now the faithful know how much bounty is hidden in you, how many rewards are prepared. Fearlessly and cheerfully I go to you. Oh, blessed Cross, take me from the people and give me to my Teacher, may the One who saved me by You receive me!”

In order not to forget WHAT has been done and WHAT has been acquired for us by the Savior, we are baptized with the cross, that is, we depict with our hand the sign (sign) of the cross.

The custom of overshadowing oneself during prayer with the sign of the cross in the Christian Church has been going on since the deepest antiquity. It was established by the holy Apostles and passed on to all the faithful, and since that time this custom has been so firmly preserved that not a single prayer, either church or home, is performed without the sign of the cross. All prayers begin and are accompanied by the sign of the cross and reverent bows. The Cross of Christ, which we depict on ourselves, not only gives great power to our prayer, but also helps to repel sinful temptations and passions.

By overshadowing ourselves with the sign of the cross with the invocation of the Name of God, we attract upon ourselves (or on the one whom we overshadow, for example, our child) the Divine grace of the Holy Spirit.

That this is indeed the case can be seen from numerous examples described in spiritual literature or transmitted orally, when demons or demonic obsessions disappeared from the sign of the cross, vessels with poisoned drink burst, water “charged” by sorcerers, psychics or “grandmothers” went rotten. ", calmed down crying babies, weakened or passed ailments, and much more.

The sign of the cross must be performed slowly, with heartfelt attention and a deep awareness that the cross is a symbol of our redemption and salvation. (102)

The sign of the cross then only has a grace-filled power when performed reverently and correctly. “In disorderly waving, verily, the demons rejoice,” said St. John Chrysostom. This comes from a careless and inattentive attitude to the holy and great work - prayer before God. And about those who carelessly perform service to God and prayer, it is said in Scripture: “Cursed is he who does the work of the Lord negligently.” (103)

In order not to please, but to drive away unclean spirits with the sign of the cross and receive grace-filled sanctification from God, it is supposed to be done like this: the first three - thumb, forefinger and middle - fingers are connected together and signify that we believe that God is the Trinity - God the Father, God Son and God the Holy Spirit. That this is not one person, but Three Persons, and that these are not three Gods, but One God. The last two fingers bend down to the palm and signify that the Son of God for our salvation descended to earth and united in himself two natures - Divine and human.

The Holy Church has established to be baptized in such a way that the right hand folded in the above way first touches the forehead, then the chest, then the right and finally the left shoulder. According to its Charter, we put the sign of the cross on the forehead (brow), the receptacle of the mind - as a sign that we love God with all our minds and that we dedicate all our thoughts to Him with love and ask Him to sanctify them. We put the cross on the stomach - the tip of the chest - as a sign that we love the Lord with all our heart and soul and that with all sincerity and reverence we dedicate all our feelings and desires to Him and ask him to sanctify our heart and feelings. We put a cross on our shoulders as a sign that we love the Lord with all the strength and firmness of our soul and spirit and that we dedicate our whole life to Him, not only mental, but also bodily activity and ask to strengthen our strength and sanctify our good deeds. Thus, we express our devotion to God with the sign of the cross, offering to Him on the cross, as on an altar, our mind, our heart and our strength.

When we overshadow ourselves with the sign of the cross, we mentally say: "In the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, amen." (The word "amen" means "truly, so be it.")

The sign of the Cross must be depicted on oneself with faith in the Crucified Lord, with reverence and humble awareness that we can propitiate the Lord not by our merits, but only by hope for His mercy and reverence for suffering and death on the Cross for us. Only under this condition can both our zeal for the fulfillment of the Lord's commandments and our prayers combined with the sign of the cross be pleasing to the Lord. (104)

By combining the sign of the cross with prayer, we thereby implore God to accept our prayers.

“The sign of the Cross,” wrote St. John Chrysostom, “both in ancient times and in modern times, took away the power of harmful substances, made poisons invalid and healed the deadly remorse of animals.”

The sign of the cross is the sign of our salvation. According to the teachings of St. Cyril of Jerusalem, “the sign of the cross is a great protection given to the poor as a gift and to the weak without difficulty; it is the grace of God, a sign for the faithful and a fear for evil spirits.”

The sign of the cross sanctifies all our actions, distinguishes them from a number of ordinary ones and puts them on the height of charitable deeds. Therefore, it is necessary to use the sign of the cross as often and as carefully as possible in dangers, in temptations, in sorrow and joy, in labor and prayer. (105)

BOW

The sign of the cross and prayer are accompanied by bows, which signify our humility, awareness of our sinfulness and recompense of honor to the majesty of God.

The worship that we perform at the entrance to the temple, during prayer, serves as an expression of our reverent feelings for God. Bows are a sign of our humility and admiration for Him.

First of all, you should slowly protect yourself with the sign of the cross, lower your right hand, and then only bow. It is wrong to be baptized and bow at the same time. The Holy Church demands to make prostrations with inner reverence and outward goodness, without haste.

With a waist bow, you need to bend over so that your hand can reach the ground. When bowing to the ground, you need to kneel and touch the ground with your head.

The Church Charter strictly requires that we prostrate in the temple slowly and in a timely manner, that is, when necessary. (105)

Bows and kneeling should be performed at the end of each short petition or prayer. Listen carefully to every petition and prayer, mentally offering up a prayer to God, and overshadow yourself with the sign of the cross at the exclamations: “Lord, have mercy,” “Give, Lord.”

When the priest addresses the worshipers with the words “Peace to all” or proclaims: “The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the love (love) of God the Father, and the communion (communion) of the Holy Spirit be with you all,” you should bow without the sign of the cross .

When people are overshadowed in the church with the Cross, the Holy Gospel, an icon or the Holy Chalice, one should cross and bow. And when they overshadow with candles, or bless with a hand, or burn those standing in the temple, the worshipers bow without making the sign of the cross.

Let us pay special attention to the fact that the Cross of Christ, only if used correctly and understood about it, can be an omnipotent and insurmountable weapon against our enemies, visible and invisible, since it does not have power in itself, but only in conjunction with living faith and with the right and reverent use.

St. John Chrysostom said: “If you, with full faith, with a heartfelt disposition, portray the Cross of Christ on your face, then not one of the unclean spirits will be able to approach you, seeing the sword with which he was wounded, seeing the weapon from which he received a deadly wound."

Let us imitate our pious ancestors, whose Cross of Christ was everything for everyone. Whether they started a business - they were baptized, whether they finished it - they were baptized again. They protected themselves with a cross, going to sleep, they overshadowed themselves with a cross, getting up from sleep. With a cross they sat down for a meal, with a cross they got up from it. The sign of the holy cross expressed sudden joy, it also testified to sorrow and danger. (106)

CHURCH CANDLE

1. Introduction

2. The structure of religion

3. From what positions they study religion

4. The problem of the emergence of religion

5. Classification of religions

List of used literature:

1. Introduction

Religion is a special form of worldview and human relationships, the basis of which is belief in the supernatural. religious belief in the supernatural, the cultivation and veneration of sacred meanings makes everything connected with faith sacred. The structure of religious culture: religious consciousness, religious activities, religious organizations. The central chain of religious consciousness - religious faith, religious feelings and dogmas, are symbolically fixed in various sacred texts, religious canons, dogmas, theological (theological) works, works of religious art and architecture.

Religious culture is a set of methods and techniques for realizing human existence in religion, which are realized in religious activities and are presented in its products that carry religious meanings and meanings, transmitted and mastered by new generations.

Religion can be perceived as a phenomenon, element or function of human culture. In such a context, culture itself acts as a set of people's ideas about the world around them, in which they are born, brought up and live. Culture, in other words, is the result of the interaction of people with the reality in which they physically reside. In contrast, religion can be represented as the sum of the experiences, impressions, inferences and activities of an individual or communities of people regarding what seems to them to be a reality of a higher order.

2. Structure of religion

It is impossible to give an exact and unambiguous definition of the concept of religion. There are many such definitions in science. They depend on the worldview of those scientists who formulate them. If you ask any person what religion is, then in most cases he will answer: "Faith in God."

The term "religion" is of Latin origin and means "piety, shrine". This word was first used in the speeches of the famous Roman orator and politician of the 1st century. BC e. Cicero, where he contrasted religion. another term denoting superstition (dark, common, mythical belief).

The word "religion" came into use in the first centuries of Christianity and emphasized that the new faith was not a wild superstition, but a deep philosophical and moral system.

Religion can be considered from different perspectives: from the point of view of human psychology, from the historical, social, from whatever, but the definition of this concept will depend decisively on the main thing: the recognition of the existence or non-existence of higher powers, i.e. God or gods . Religion is a very complex and multifaceted phenomenon. Let's try to highlight its main elements.

1. The primary element of any religion is faith. A believer can be an educated person, who knows a lot, but maybe he has no education. In relation to faith, the first and second will be equal. Faith coming from the heart is many times more valuable for religion than coming from reason and logic! It presupposes, first of all, a religious feeling, mood, emotions. Faith is filled with content and nourished by religious texts, images (for example, icons), and divine services. An important role in this sense is played by the communication of people, since the idea of ​​God and "higher powers" can arise, but cannot be clothed in specific images and systems, if a person is isolated from a community of his own kind. But true faith is always simple, pure, and necessarily naive. It can be born spontaneously, intuitively, from the contemplation of the world.

Faith forever and invariably abides with a person, but in the process of communication between believers, it is often (but not necessarily) concretized. An image of God or gods arises, having specific names, names and attributes (properties) and there is an opportunity to communicate with Him or with them, the truth of sacred texts and dogmas (eternal absolute truths taken on faith), the authority of the prophets, the founders of the church and the priesthood is affirmed.

Faith has always been and remains the most important property of human consciousness, the most important way and measure of his spiritual life.

2. Along with simple sensual faith, there may also exist a more systematic set of principles, ideas, concepts specially developed for a given religion, i.e. her teaching. It can be a doctrine about the gods or God, about the relationship between God and the world. God and man, about the rules of life and behavior in society (ethics and morals), about church art, etc. The creators of religious teachings are specially educated and trained people, many of whom have special (from the point of view of this religion) abilities to communicate with God, to receive some higher information that is inaccessible to others. Religious doctrine is created by philosophers (religious philosophy) and theologians. In Russian, a complete analogue of the word "theology" can be used - theology. If religious philosophers deal with the most general issues of the structure and functioning of God's world, then theologians expound and substantiate specific aspects of this dogma, study and interpret sacred texts. Theology, like any science, has branches, for example, moral theology.

3. Religion cannot exist without some kind of religious activity. Missionaries preach and spread their faith, theologians write scientific papers, teachers teach the basics of their religion, and so on. But the core of religious activity is a cult (from Latin cultivation, care, veneration). A cult is understood as the whole set of actions that believers perform with the aim of worshiping God, gods, or any supernatural forces. These are rituals, divine services, prayers, sermons, religious holidays.

Rites and other cult actions can be magical (from Latin - sorcery, sorcery, sorcery), i.e. such, with the help of which special people or clergymen try in a mysterious, unknowable way to influence the world around them, on other people, to change the nature and properties of certain objects. Sometimes they talk about "white" and "black" magic, that is, witchcraft involving light, divine forces and the dark forces of the devil. However, magical witchcraft has always been condemned and condemned by most religions and churches, where they are considered "intrigues of evil spirits." Another variety of cult actions is symbolic rites - a conditional material identification mark, which only depict or imitate the actions of a deity in order to remind of him.

It is also possible to single out a certain group of rites and other religious activities that clearly do not relate to witchcraft or magic, but, from the point of view of believers, contain a supernatural, mysterious and incomprehensible element. They are usually aimed at "revealing God in oneself", uniting with Him by "dissolving in God" one's own consciousness. Such actions are usually called mystical (from gr. - mysterious). Mystical rites can not affect everyone, but only those who are initiated into the inner meaning of this religious teaching. Elements of mysticism are present in many religions, including the great world ones. Some religions (both ancient and modern), in the teachings of which the mystical element prevails, are called by religious scholars - mystical.

In order to carry out a cult, a church building, a temple (or prayer house), church art, cult objects (utensils, vestments of the priesthood, etc.) and much more are needed. Most religions require specially trained priests to perform religious acts. They can be perceived as carriers of special properties that bring them closer to God, for example, to possess divine grace, like Orthodox and Catholic priests (see topics VI, VII, IX, X), or they can simply be organizers and leaders of worship, as in Protestantism or Islam (see Topics VIII, XI). Each religion develops its own rules for worship. One cult may be complex, solemn, detailed approved, the other simple, cheap, and possibly improvisational.

Any of the listed elements of the cult - the temple, the objects of worship, the priesthood - may be absent in some religions. There are religions where the cult is given such little importance that it can be almost invisible. But in general, the role of a cult in religion is extremely great: people, carrying out a cult, communicate with each other, exchange emotions and information, admire magnificent works of architecture, painting, listen to prayer music, sacred texts. All this increases the religious feelings of people by an order of magnitude, unites them and helps in achieving higher spirituality.

4. In the process of worship and all their religious activities, people unite in communities called communities, churches (it is necessary to distinguish the concept of a church as an organization from the same concept, but in the sense of a church building). Sometimes, instead of the words church or religion (not religion in general, but a specific religion) they use the term confession. In Russian, this term is closest in meaning to the word creed (they say, for example, “a person of the Orthodox faith”).

The meaning and essence of the association of believers is understood and interpreted differently in different religions. For example, in Orthodox theology, the church is a union of all Orthodox: those who are living now, as well as those who have already died, that is, those who are in “eternal life” (the doctrine of the visible and invisible church). In this case, the church acts as a kind of timeless and non-spatial beginning. In other religions, the church is simply understood as an association of fellow believers who recognize certain dogmas, rules and norms of behavior. Some of the churches emphasize the special “dedication” and isolation of their members from everyone around them, while others, on the contrary, are open and accessible to everyone.

Religious culture is a complex, complex formation, all aspects of religion as a social subsystem find expression in the socio-cultural area. Religious culture is a set of methods and techniques for realizing human existence in religion, which are realized in religious activities and are presented in its products that carry religious meanings and meanings, transmitted and mastered by new generations. The activity center is the cult.

The content of cultural values ​​is given by religious consciousness. They are organized around a religious worldview, filled with appropriate images, ideas, concepts, myths, parables, orient the consciousness and behavior of people to hypostatized beings, properties, connections, transformations, satisfy various human needs. As the material carriers of beliefs are: oral speech, which sets out the legend, sacred literature, ritual texts, means of worship (idol, stupa, icon, etc.), works of art.

Religious systems were accumulating experience in developing relationships, fine-tuning organization, structuring relationships, and managing people's behavior. The organizational side of religious culture is carried out in various levels of management of religious activities, in providing theological and theoretical research and education, in conducting economic, commercial, and charitable activities.

Religious philosophy, morality, art, etc., are formed under the influence of religion. Religious philosophy , based on religious worldview premises, uses the conceptual apparatus and language of theology, theology, solves ontological, epistemological, logical, sociological, anthropological and other problems. religious morality- this is a system of moral ideas, norms, concepts, feelings, values, developed and preached by religion, filled with specific (Jewish, Christian, Islamic, etc.) content. religious art represents the area of ​​creation, perception and transmission of artistic values ​​in which religious symbols “live”.

There are two parts of religious culture. One is formed by those components in which the dogma is expressed directly and directly - sacred texts, theology, various elements of the cult, etc. The other is made up of those phenomena from the field of philosophy, morality, art, which are historically involved in religious, spiritual and cult activities, in church life. .

Religious culture is not the same in different religions and denominations and, accordingly, appears as a culture of tribal religions, as Hindu, Jewish, Confucian, Shinto, Buddhist, Christian, Islamic and other (in their many confessional varieties) culture.

Religious culture, depending on historical circumstances, to a greater or lesser extent has an impact on secular culture as a whole, as well as on its individual parts.

End of work -

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Fundamentals of Religious Studies

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This denomination, historically close to the Anabaptists, was named in 1544 after the Dutch preacher Menno Simons (1492 - 1559), who defended the principle of adult baptism by faith. Uche

Baptists
Baptist communities arose at the beginning of the 17th century, J. Smith (1554 - 1612) is considered the first English Baptist, adult baptism by immersion was introduced in the communities. The name of the denomination is connected with this.

Adventists
In the early 30s of the XIX century. in the United States, the Adventist religious movement (Latin adventus - advent) separated from Baptism. Preacher W. Miller (1782 - 1849) in the summer of 1831 announced that he had calculated the date Tue

Pentecostals
The Protestant movement, which received this name, arose in the United States at the end of the 19th century. and from there spread to other countries. At the heart of this denomination lies the one set forth in the New Testament book "Acts

Jehovah witnesses
In 1872, the "International Society of Bible Students" was founded in the USA. Its leaders proclaimed after World War I that the "second coming of Christ" had already taken place.

Trends in Modern Protestantism. Socio-political positions of Protestant churches
The World Missionary Conference in London in 1910 marked the beginning of an ecumenical movement with the goal of overcoming dogmatic and canonical differences in Christianity and linking it to

Rise of Islam
Islam arose at the beginning of the 7th century. n. e. on the Arabian Peninsula. This period is characterized by the gradual collapse of the tribal system and the emergence of a class society. At that time, through Western A

Islam creed
The main provisions of the doctrine of Islam are set forth in the main "sacred" book - the Koran. Muslims consider the Koran (ar. "kuran" - reading) the highest and most complete of the existing sacred

Main directions in Islam
As a result of internal contradictions in Islam in the second half of the 7th century. three directions arose: the Kharijites (Arabic "kharaja" - to speak, the earliest religious and political group in Islam

Islam and Modernity
Modern Western Islamic studies seek to view Islamic countries as a single entity, which is based on a common religion. Reasons for the widespread and growing influence of Muslims

Islam in our country
The regions of the traditional spread of Islam in our country cover a significant territory - Central Asia, Kazakhstan, the North Caucasus, the Volga region, the Urals, and part of the center. In our country there are more

Hinayana philosophy
main role in the theoretical substantiation of Hinayana, the doctrine of dharmas played, which the prominent Russian Buddhist scholar F.I. Shcherbatskoy (1866 - 1942) called "the central concept of Buddhism." Dharmas - some

Mahayana philosophy
The Mahayanistic understanding of salvation was accompanied by a rethinking of well-known Buddhist provisions and the development of new ones. First, the Mahayanists proposed the concept of the Absolute, which

Academic Philosophy
At the end of XVIII - early XIX in. a direction in Orthodox philosophy is being formed, which has received the name of academic philosophy. Her general principles were developed by professors of philosophical departments of Moscow

Metaphysics of Unity
The initial principles of the metaphysics of unity were formulated by the mystic philosopher, theologian and poet V. S. Solovyov (1853 - 1900) in the works "Criticism of abstract principles",

New religious consciousness
The crisis of official theology and the church, which manifested itself in the middle of the 19th century, became especially acute at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The need to protect religion from the impending danger was understood most

Neo-Thomism
Neo-Thomism (lat. neo - new and thomismus - the teachings of Thomas Aquinas) is an influential trend in the philosophy of Catholicism. After a period of prosperity in the XIII - XV centuries. and the subsequent loss of their positions in the intellectual

The principle of harmony of faith and reason
The cornerstone of neo-Thomism is the doctrine of the harmony of faith and reason. At one time, Thomas Aquinas, evaluating previous attempts to solve this dilemma [the irrationalism of the Christian apologist

The doctrine of being
The main section of the philosophy of neo-Thomism is ontology (the doctrine of being). Its subject and main category - being - is understood ambiguously, since neo-Thomism proceeds from the recognition of supernatural beings.

Theory of knowledge
The followers of Thomas Aquinas argue that it is their theory of knowledge that allows us to call the philosophy of neo-Thomism realism. The reason for this is their recognition of the existence of an independent

Neo-Augustinism
A prominent place in Catholic philosophy, along with neo-Thomism, is occupied by neo-Augustinism. Numerous neo-Augustinian schools [the “philosophy of the spirit” by R. Le Senne; "philosophy of action" M. Blondel (1861-194

Theory of knowledge
While neo-Thomism allows for rational proofs of Christian tenets, neo-Augustinism proceeds from the fact that rational arguments do not achieve their goal. The main disadvantage of neotomi

The doctrine of being
Thanks to intuition, a person realizes himself connected with something obligatory, superior to him, and discovers the presence of being. This being is endowed with all the properties of the Christian God: the omnipresent

Christian (Catholic) existentialism
The founder of Catholic existentialism is G. Marcel. He believes that communion with God is possible only individually, through personal unique experience. This attitude leads him to the need

Teilhardism
P. Teilhard de Chardin (1881 - 1955), a faithful member of the Jesuit order and a prominent paleontologist, solves religious and philosophical problems from completely different positions than neo-Thomism and neo-Augustinism. apheo

Philosophical and theological interpretation of nature
P. Teilhard de Chardin considered it necessary to radically revise the Christian worldview, to introduce into it an element of movement and development. The central methodological principle of modern thinking

social ideal
The ideas of P. Teilhard de Chardin have a significant impact on the modern socio-ethical teaching of Catholicism, especially on building a model of the future human society. According to the concept Te

M. Luther, J. Calvin. Protestant orthodoxy
Protestant orthodoxy was developed by M. Luther, Calvin and others. Luther opposed speculative philosophy and theology, aimed at knowing the essence of God and his attributes, divine revelation

Liberal theology of the 19th - early 20th century
During the Age of Enlightenment, the German Lutheran theologian J. Semler (1725-1791), following Spinoza, argued that historical questions can be investigated independently of theology. Semler and his followers and

K. Barth. dialectical theology
At the beginning of the XX century. Protestantism became more orthodox. Fundamentalism took shape in the United States (from the Osnovy edition published since 1912), which opposed the modernization of Christian

R. Bultman. The concept of the demythologization of Christianity
Rudolf Bultmann (1884-19 "76), a German theologian, taking into account the criticism of the New Testament texts, which showed that they include borrowed tales from various peoples and are perceived as

P. Tillich
The desire to update theology with the help of existential philosophy was also characteristic of P. Tillich (1886-1965), a German-American theologian and philosopher. P. Tillich in his three-volume work "Systematic

D. Bonhoeffer. Secular theology
In the middle of our century, discussions about secularization and the “death of God” are unfolding in Protestant theology, neoliberalism is being strengthened, which takes on a radical character and acts as a series of

Process Theology
In the second half of the XX century. a "process theology" arises, which is based on the philosophy of A. N. Whitehead (1861 - 1947). The works of American theologians John Cobb (b. 1925) and Sh

Post-theistic and deconstructivist theology
The German theologian D. Sölle (born 1929) proposed the concept of "post-theistic theology", which includes elements of criticism of religion by L. Feuerbach (1804-1872), K. Marx, E. Fromm. By the method of this theolo

Theology of Hope. Eschatological theology
After the 1960s, a skeptical attitude towards the politicization and sociologization of theology was growing. Eschatological issues are increasingly being considered in Protestant philosophy and theology. With the help of

Fundamentalism
Since the beginning of the 1970s, in the conditions of exacerbation of ecological and social contradictions, the tendency of church and theological conservatism has been intensifying. This broad movement is commonly referred to as the Evangelists.

Contextual theology
Protestant theology at the end of the 20th century. reflected the situation of religious pluralism. In this situation, ecumenical theology is gaining ground, oriented towards dialogue with other religions and worlds.

Hanbalism
The main opponents of rationalist currents within the framework of Muslim theology were the supporters of Sunni traditionalism. Having proclaimed the principle of strict reliance on the Koran and the Sunnah, on knowledge,

Asharism
In the context of the growing attacks of the Hanbalis on Mutazilism, an attempt was made to legalize it by compromising with the teachings of the traditional dogmatists. It was initiated by the theologian from Basra Abu-l

Religious and philosophical views in Shiism
In the Middle Ages, there was an intensive development of the religious and philosophical system of Shiism, which was divided back in the 8th century. into two main currents - moderate and extreme, which, in turn, broke up into many

Religious-philosophical and theological views in the reform movement
In the middle of the XIX century. in the most developed part of the Arab world (Egypt, Syria, Lebanon), a period of cultural upsurge began, called the Arab Renaissance (Nahda). Its ideologists sought to synthesize

Religious and philosophical traditions and modernity
The preservation of religion in a significant part of the Arab-Muslim world of the dominant role in the formation of the spiritual climate, the deep introduction of stereotypical religious norms into everyday life

Theosophy
The term "theosophy" (Greek theos - god and sophia - wisdom) literally means "divine wisdom". The origin of this term, according to the founders of Theosophy, goes back to the Neoplatonist schools.

Cosmology
The picture of the universe that theosophy draws is given, according to A. Besant, by the spiritual guardians of mankind through their student and messenger H. P. Blavatsky and described in her works. Theosophy op

Anthropogenesis
The earthly world is one of the stages of planetary evolution, which also has a sevenfold cycle. The earthly manvantara was preceded by the lunar one, which produced seven classes of beings from which

The doctrine of man
One of the main components of theosophy is the doctrine of reincarnation - a process that embraces both the evolution of the universe as a whole and the evolution of man. Life is a way of self-realization of the Logos,

The doctrine of the higher worlds
Structure human world consists of the physical, astral, mental worlds, the "Sphere of Buddhi", nirvana and even higher worlds, including the "life of the highest God" (See: Besant A. Ancient wisely

Anthroposophy
Anthroposophy (from the Greek anthropos - man and sophia - wisdom) - an occult-philosophical doctrine of a person as a carrier of hidden higher powers and abilities, aimed at the development of supersensory organs

The doctrine of man
At the forefront of the anthroposophical doctrine, R. Steiner puts the doctrine of man, whom he considers as a citizen of three worlds - physical, mental and spiritual. Man is a seven-membered being and

Teaching about superphysical worlds
Anthroposophy considers that the macrocosm and the microcosm, the world and man are analogues. The structure of the world is identical to the structure of the human body and is a collection of interpenetrating worlds: "country

Theory of knowledge
R. Steiner believed that modern science, with the help of methods developed for the knowledge of the physical world, cannot proceed to the knowledge of invisible superphysical worlds. Anthroposophy sets the task

Agni Yoga
Syncretic religious and philosophical views are developed in Agni Yoga, Agni Yoga, or Living Ethics, is a philosophical and ethical teaching aimed at revealing the highest mental abilities of a person.

Structure and functions of texts
The language of the Living Ethics texts is specific, reflecting the aphorism and imagery characteristic of the philosophical and cultural traditions of the East, and their very content is multilayered. Followers of Agni Yoga

The doctrine of the higher worlds
At the foundation of the teachings of Agni Yoga about the world lies the teaching about spiritual fire. “A subtle study of matter and the atom will lead to the conclusion that the vital energy is not electricity, but Fire ... Matter affirms

Doctrine of Hierarchy
One of the cornerstones of the teachings of Agni Yoga is the teaching of the cosmic hierarchy. The Hierarchy of Light permeates the entire structure of the world, it represents a hierarchy of minds at various levels of ev

The doctrine of man
Agni Yoga considers man to be a product of a long evolutionary development, having absorbed the experience of human incarnations over millions of years. A person concentrates powerful energies in himself; ene

The connection of freethinking with the knowledge of nature, society and man
Freethinking is based on a person's ability to realistically perceive certain aspects of the surrounding world. Studies by ethnographers and historians show that naive-realistic views

Manifestations of freethinking in relation to religion
Free-thinking in relation to religion manifests itself in various forms. They have different degrees of consistency, different goals, social foundations, moral content. Criticism of religion

The birth of freethinking
Elements of freethinking, as ethnographers say, arise already at the stage of decomposition of the primitive communal system. Ethnographers met with the Eskimos, who did not believe in spirits, denied the power of Sham

Theomachism and skepticism in the culture of the ancient world
God-fighting ideas are reflected in many literary monuments ancient world. In the ancient Chinese "Book of Songs" ("Shi-ching", XI - VI centuries BC), rich material has been preserved, indicating

Knowledge about the world and man, mythology and philosophy
In the mythology of the ancient world, real knowledge about the methods of healing, about the properties of plants and animals, about other tribes and countries, was combined with delusions. By the time of the emergence of philosophy in India

Criticism of the doctrine of the gods from the standpoint of common sense
Those who thought about the question of the nature of ideas about gods were perplexed about the discrepancy between these ideas and the numerous facts of real life. Preserved

On the origins of religion
In the writings of a number of philosophers of antiquity, we find the first attempts to comprehend the essence of religion, its causes, the nature of its influence on man. One of the first to raise the question of the source of faith

Freethinking in the Middle Ages
Freethinking in the Middle Ages in Europe and the Arab East developed under the dominance of Christianity and Islam. Criticism of Christianity by educated representatives of ancient Rome began

Heretical movements in Western Europe and Russia
Heresies are teachings that are in conflict with the prevailing creed. As a rule, in the Middle Ages they did not go beyond the religious worldview. Heresies, peasant-plebeian or burgher

Free-thinking interpretations of doctrinal books
Freethinking was also manifested in a peculiar, non-religious interpretation of religious terms, images, plots. Often the exegesis of the Bible led the thinking theologian beyond the traditional religious

Freethinking in the folk culture of the Middle Ages
There was a whole layer of folk culture that opposed the official church culture. It was in its own way a holistic culture, expressed in a ritual-spectacular form, in verbal laughter productions.

Religious indifference and humanism in literary and historical writings
Throughout the Middle Ages in the countries of Europe and the East, the ideas of free thought appeared in fiction, poetry, in the writings of historians and chroniclers. In novels - historical, love

The Role of Experienced Knowledge in the Development of Freethinking
The growth of scientific knowledge in Europe is especially noticeable in the XI - XII centuries. The field of mathematical, astronomical, medical knowledge is expanding. Philosophers of Chartres were interested in natural science problems

Freethinking in philosophy
In the Middle Ages, theology and philosophy were closely intertwined, to a large extent philosophy was the servant of theology. Philosophy contained problems, the development of which raised it to a higher position.

Freethinking in the Medieval East
The Arab East at that time was heterogeneous in ethnic, confessional and cultural terms, in the cities there was an intensive interchange of cultures. It was in the cities that secular knowledge spread; sword

Freethinking in European Philosophy
The figure of P. Abelard (1079 - 1142) is very colorful. In his autobiographical essay “The Story of My Disasters,” he skillfully described not only the tragic story of his love for Eloise, but also his philosophical

The role of science in the development of freethinking
The development of freethinking in the Renaissance was due to both social changes and changes in the field of production and science, which began to acquire new features, primarily experimental

Similarities and differences between the secular culture of the Renaissance and the Reformation
The secular culture of the Renaissance and the transformed religiosity of the Reformation opposed feudalism and Catholicism. What they have in common is the socio-economic origins, a reflection of the moods

Humanists XV - XVI centuries. about the value of the human person
The desire to elevate a person, to show his great creative possibilities is characteristic of F. Petrarch (1304 - 1374). His heightened interest in his own personality is gradually transformed into an interest in

Anticlericalism of the representatives of the Renaissance
Renaissance humanists subjected catholic church along with all its institutions - the papal hierarchy, monasticism, rites - sharply criticized. L. Valla (1407 - 1457) published in 1440 by the historian

Criticism of the religious worldview
In the Renaissance, first of all, scholasticism was criticized, in which thinkers saw an authoritarian dogmatic system. The authority for several centuries that dominated the Catholic

Renaissance thinkers on the causes and evolution of religion
During the Renaissance, many philosophers accept and develop the idea of ​​the human origin of religion. Vanini accepted the theory of deceit, but he considered the greed of the ministers of religion, the desire

Freethinking in the art and literature of the Renaissance
XIV - XVI centuries in Europe are characterized by the rise of artistic and literary creativity, not least associated with the development of science. Many artists of this time - A. Dürer (1471 - 152

Philosophical and natural scientific basis of freethinking
Freethinking in modern times is developing in connection with the processes of democratization of society, with the departure of the old feudal structures into the past, with the formation and strengthening of the bourgeois class. Svobodomy

The beginning of the scientific analysis of doctrinal books
B. Spinoza in his "Theological and Political Treatise" acted as one of the founders of the scientific analysis of the Bible. The Bible is a matter of the human mind and should be explored freely and without prejudice.

The idea of ​​a connection between atheism and morality
The well-known French philosopher P. Bayle stood on the positions of skepticism. His worldview was formed largely under the influence of M, Montaigne (1533-1592), who questioned the claims of the Middle Ages

Freethinking of Deist Philosophers
The critic of religious superstitions and the church was T. Hobbes, whose activities took place at the very height of the English bourgeois revolution. T. Hobbes, was a champion of freedom of conscience, however, he refused to

Enlightenment in Germany
Freethinking in 18th century Germany was influenced by the French enlighteners - P. Bayle, Voltaire, P. Holbach, as well as the pantheistic teachings of B. Spinoza. In the XVIII century. well-known critics

Freethinking in America
In the XVIII century. in America there was a struggle of the English colonies for independence from the mother country. Because Anglican Church justified colonialism, Puritan sects began to spread in America; together

Atheism of the French Enlighteners of the 18th century
Atheism found expression in the writings of French materialists - D. Diderot, C. A. Helvetius (1715-1771), J. O. de La Mettrie (1709 - 1751), P. Holbach (1723 - 1789). At the origins of atheism in the 18th century. worth yours

Atheism L. Feuerbach
In Germany, the colorful figure of the materialist and atheist L. Feuerbach stands out. He investigated the causes of religion; in the works "The Essence of Christianity" and "Lectures on the Essence of Religion" showed the role

Atheistic doctrine of K. Marx and F. Engels
In various periods of history, the legacy of K. Marx and F. Engels was often interpreted extremely ambiguously. As a result, stable clichés and stereotypes were formed in relation to the views of K. Marx and

The development of secular consciousness in the 17th century
In the 17th century absolutism is being formed in Russia, the enslavement of the peasants is intensifying, which leads to uprisings; the territory is expanding rapidly; manufactures arise, trade develops,

Enlightenment in Russia in the 18th century
The development of freethinking in the XVIII century. associated with the modernization of feudalism by Peter I, with the establishment of close ties with Europe. Cultural interchange with other peoples has an impact on the emergence

Deism by M. V. Lomonosov
M.V. Lomonosov, by philosophical convictions - a deist, developed such a picture of the world, which, in essence, excluded the intervention of God in the affairs of nature and man. The law of conservation of matter discovered by him and d

Freethinking A.N. Radishcheva
A. N. Radishchev (1749 - 1802) developed anti-clerical ideas in connection with the criticism of oppression. Enslavement, from his point of view, distorts the nature of man, and the true essence of man is freedom, will

Decembrists about religion
The Decembrists set as their goal the elimination of serfdom and autocracy. Political free-thinking among a number of Decembrists was combined with anti-religious free-thinking, also fed by the European

Freethinking of Enlighteners-Democrats of the 19th century
The ideas of freethinking were developed in the works of V. G. Belinsky (1811 - 1848), A. I. Herzen (1812 - 1870), N. P. Ogarev (1813 -1877), N.G. Chernyshevsky (1828 - 1889), N. A. Dobrolyubov (1836-1861)

Freethinking populists
The populists - M. A. Bakunin (1814 - 1876), P. L. Lavrov (1823-1900) and others were the followers of the tradition of free thought. They focused their attention on the socio-historical understanding of religion. P. L.

Atheism in the works of V. I. Lenin
The activities of V. I. Lenin (1870 - 1924) took place in a special historical era. In Russia, the Bolsheviks tried to put into practice the basic tenets of Marxist doctrine, including

Main alliances and directions
Freethinking Abroad in the 20th Century represented by a number of teachings, ranging from extremely nihilistic to humanistic-democratic. Modern freethinkers in the analysis of religion, man, gum

Neo-positivist orientation
The founder of the neo-positivist trend in modern Western free thought can be considered the English scientist, logician, mathematician, representative of logical positivism B. Russell (1872-1

Freudian direction
The founder of this direction is the Austrian philosopher, psychotherapist Z. Freud. In his works, he not only touches on the essence of religion, but also draws attention to the psychological nature of atheism.

Atheistic existentialism
The position of atheistic existentialism is most clearly seen in the French philosopher J.-P. Sartre (1905-1980) in his works "Existentialism is humanism", "Being and Nothing", etc. J.-

Nihilism
The nihilistic direction in modern freethinking originates from F. Nietzsche (1844 - 1900) - the author of "Thus Spoke Zarathustra", "On the Side of Good and Evil", "The Anti-Christian", etc. Nietzscheanism

Secular humanism
Among modern freethinkers, the theory of secular humanism, presented in the works of the American philosopher P. Kurtz (b. 1925), has a great influence. In his writings "The Transcendental Temptation

Evolutionary humanism
The English philosopher, biologist, one of the active figures of the modern international free-thinking movement J. Huxley (1887-1975) laid the foundations of evolutionary humanism. According to him, religion is

naturalistic humanism
The concept of naturalistic humanism was developed by the American philosopher K. Lamont (born 1902). In his opinion, everything that exists in this world is a product of natural development without any

Defense of freedom of thought and conscience
Although in foreign countries there is a different legal status of the church, state and school, the philosophical solution to the problems of freedom of conscience among freethinkers is similar: they continue anti-clerical

The concept of worldview
The significance of a worldview in a person's life is determined by its reasonableness, by the fact that its interaction with the outside world is mediated by consciousness. The need to navigate the changing social and

Religious and philosophical outlook
Religious worldview is a broad generalizing concept for a significant number of different systems of worldview and worldview that have historically existed within the framework of numerous religions. Since the advent

Is a dialogue of worldviews possible?
If we turn to the history of mankind, it is easy to see that between various types religious worldview and their followers, various attitudes arose - from loyal to openly hostile

Specifics of Religious Anthropology
The specificity of religious anthropology lies primarily in the fact that the essence, existence, nature, purpose of a person are understood on the basis of the recognition of the highest sacred principle (spirits, gods

The problem of anthropogenesis
After the work of anatomists and zoologists proved the relationship of the human body with the monkey body, K. Linnaeus (1707 - 1778) included it in the system of the animal kingdom, in the order of primates, singled out in

Human nature. The problem of ontogeny
The problem of human nature and the ontogenesis of the individual, his becoming a personality and individuality includes critical issues about the relationship in man of the body, soul and spirit, biological and social

Thanatology and eschatology
Thanatology (Greek thanatos - death) and eschatology (Greek eschatos - last) are essential aspects of the religious worldview. The main question of these teachings about death and the last things

The development of natural science knowledge within the framework of religion
The accumulation of practical knowledge about the surrounding world at the dawn of history took place within the framework of the mythological, and then universally established and dominant religious worldview. Empirical

Conflicts of religion and science
While the emerging science, its concepts and ideas, for example, in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, were sacralized, there were no grounds for conflicts, since knowledge about nature entered

Influence of 20th century science on the evolution of worldviews
From the end of the 19th century the newest revolution in natural science began, initially marked by the discovery of X-rays, radioactivity, and the electron. Since the 1920s, rapidly developing

Theology about the relationship of religion and science
Today, theologians assess the causes and essence of conflicts between religion and science in different ways. Some believe that the confrontation between religion and science was the result of a misunderstanding of the Holy Scriptures, in which

Reflection in religions of knowledge about society
The history of mankind is at the same time the history of various forms of social organization. Each historically existing stable community of people had its own original religion, in which

Basic principles of religious understanding of society
A distinctive feature of the religious worldview in the approach to understanding society is that social phenomena are considered in the context of a single world order established from above. ON THE.

Difference and similarity of religious and non-religious understanding of society
The mind of a person who seeks to understand society and its history comes first of all to such obvious judgments that society consists of people, and each of them is distinguished by the fact that its action is preceded by

From a traditional religious point of view, morality is bestowed on a person from above, its basic norms and concepts are formulated directly by a deity, recorded in sacred books, and people must strictly

Features of religious morality
The content of religious morality is set by the corresponding religious consciousness; it has a complex structure and includes a number of aspects. An essential feature of religious morality is the "doubling" of moral

Is non-religious morality possible?
However, the question remains open: does religion make morality morality? This opinion prevailed in past centuries. As already mentioned, only in the XVII century. it has been hypothesized that there is a possibility

The public nature of art
The similarity and interaction of art and religion is due to their axiological orientation, the combination of rational-logical and emotional-fantastic components in them. Aesthetic and p

Religious and cult art
The same applies to art dedicated to the embodiment of religious problems. It is nourished, like any art, by the consciousness of achieved social accomplishments. But unlike secular art

Canon in church art and its creative possibilities
The canon (Greek - norm, rule) in church art is a set of mandatory provisions regarding the course of worship and its aesthetic design. It prescribes the type of architectural solution

Interaction of images of religious art with the spiritual world of the individual
Such a shift in emphasis is possible not only within the range of historical time, but within the present. Different people can at the same time perceive the same image of the religious and

Trends in the Evolution of Religious Art under the Conditions of Secularization
Secularization weakens, as you know, the spiritual and organizational influence of the church on art. A number of its types and genres are developing in accordance with the needs secular culture(ballet and comedy,

The idea of ​​religious tolerance in antiquity and the Middle Ages
The study of the cultural monuments of Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Ancient China allows us to speak about the deification of the power of rulers and the existing orders in society. In the myths of the ancient world received utwe

The evolution of the understanding of freedom in relation to religion in the Renaissance and in modern times
From the end of the XIV century. in Europe, the process of adapting the religious worldview to the interests of the "third estate" is expanding. The philosophy of antiquity is comprehended in a new way, the ideals of secular humanism are affirmed.

Features of the development of ideas about freedom of conscience
Russia, having adopted the Christian version of Byzantium, remained for a long time under the influence of pagan views, which were included in the Orthodox dogma in a peculiar way. Together with the Byzantine variant

State-church relations in Russia until October 1917
The peculiarity of the relationship between the state and the church in pre-revolutionary Russia was determined by the reform of the beginning of the 18th century, which abolished the patriarchate and established the state church in the person

Freedom of conscience and state-church relations after the October Revolution of 1917
First decrees Soviet power radically changed the position of the Orthodox Church and other religious organizations. Thus, the Decree "On Land", adopted by the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets on October 26, 1917 No.

New legislation on freedom of conscience
The year 1985 marked the beginning of a process of profound change in the relationship between state and church. Restrictions that for many years have bound the activities of religious organizations have been lifted. It's sp

If mythology humanizes the world, streamlines social practice, supports the vital principles of culture, then Religion takes a person beyond reality. This is their main difference, although mythology is an indispensable attribute of any religion. These two spheres of human activity are closest to each other. The definition of the essence of religion is as different as that of culture. From the standpoint of modern philosophy, religion is derived from the Latin word relegio - piety, piety, shrine and give the following definition:

« Religion - worldview and attitude, as well as the corresponding behavior, determined by faith in the existence of God; feelings of bondage, dependence, and obligation to a secret power that provides support and is worthy of worship».

Religion is a special component of human culture, because there is practically no nation in whose culture a certain part life values not based on religious beliefs. For many millennia, the social and cultural development of mankind took place within the framework of religious beliefs, therefore, even today, for a significant part of humanity, religion is the highest cultural value.

Beliefs are a special form of worldview based on beliefs that cannot be empirically tested or proven logically. At the same time, the epistemological boundary between knowledge and faith is fixed very indistinctly. The more a modern person cognizes the world, the more blank spots appear that have no explanation. Thus, the grounds for faith increase. This is facilitated by the moral crisis of society and its social institutions. Losing "faith in society", a person turns (returns) to God, asks him for help and support.

In understanding religion as a cultural phenomenon, an important role is played by the explanation of its origin and functions. Religion as an integral socio-cultural phenomenon is studied by a special philosophical discipline - religious studies.

In sociology, there are two leading trends in understanding its essence. One of them goes back to the French philosopher E. Durkheim, who saw in religion a system of collective ideas that contribute to the cohesion of society, maintaining its integrity. Thus, the main one was put forward consolidating function religion.

Another direction developed within the framework of “understanding sociology” under the influence of the ideas of M. Weber and considered religion as a motive for social action, directing human activity in the direction of specific life goals: political, economic, ideological, etc. This is how the understanding purposeful function religion.

The psychological aspect of the search for the essence of religion focuses on compensatory function . Religion is presented as a way to make up for human impotence before nature, society and in relation to itself. It contributes to the internal harmonization of the personality and achieves this as a result of emotional unloading, catharsis (from the Greek. katharsis - purification), mystical cleansing of the soul from layers of sensuality and physicality.

In a philosophical key, as well as in a cultural one, from the point of view of the tasks of the spiritual plan, religion is understood in the aspect of its philosophical, moral functions. Religion perceives (function world outlook), explains ( understanding of the world), evaluates ( attitude of the world) and provides meanings ( meaning creation, moral function) the totality of knowledge and meanings that are developed in various fields of activity.

The ultimate goal of man's religious efforts is his salvation. It is understood as a complete overcoming of lack of freedom and alienation, conceivable as physical and moral evil, and can appear in a variety of forms. For example, as faith in the highest gift from God, as salvation through the church, in the form of mystical revelation or loving piety, as moral perfection and ritualism.

In modern science, there are three stages in the development of religious consciousness:

mythological

Polytheistic (pagan)

Monotheistic

Religion arises during the period of the emergence of ancient civilizations and has polytheistic features (polytheism). The main features of religion include:

Faith in God and religious feelings;

Religious cult and rituals, the presence of clergy;

Primary texts (holy books);

The religious organization is the church.

Major mono-religious teachings become world religions. Major world religions : Christianity, Buddhism, Islam.

Christianity is a religion based on the belief in the life, crucifixion and resurrection of the God-man Jesus Christ. These events are described in the Gospel (they are written by the disciples of Christ - John, Matthew, Mark, Luke). Holy book - The Bible is the New Testament. The origins of Christianity are the monotheism of the Jewish religion, set forth in The Bible is the Old Testament.

state religion Christianity becomes in the Roman Empire in the 4th century AD. In 395, the Roman Empire was divided into the Western (the capital of Rome) and the Eastern (the capital - Constantinople). The rivalry between them led in 1054 to the division of the Christian church. into Catholic and Orthodox. In the XVI-XVII centuries (Luther, Calvin) there is Protestantism.

There are significant differences between Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Protestantism.

Catholicism:organization- a single church headed by the Pope; dogmatic questions- the holy spirit comes not only from God the Father, but also from God the Son; for clergy- vow of celibacy; in the field of worship- are baptized from left to right; communion with bread, and baptism by pouring; main holiday - Christmas ; system of values- emphasizes the human essence of Christ, the desire to improve earthly life.

Orthodoxy:organization- a set of independent churches; dogmatic questions- the holy spirit comes only from God the Father; for clergy- you can have a family; in the field of worship- baptized from right to left; communion with bread and wine; baptism by dipping; the main holiday is Easter; system of values- emphasis on the divinity of Christ, on the desire for the salvation of the soul.

Protestantism:organization- the absence of a single organization, the abolition of the church hierarchy; dogmatic questions– mediators between people and God are not needed, ordinary parishioners can also interpret the Scriptures; for clergy- the abolition of monasticism; in the field of worship- recognition of only two sacraments, baptism and communion; the abolition of magnificent services; system of values- increasing earthly wealth is a charitable deed.

Buddhism - founder Siddhartha Gautama in the 6th century BC The origins of Buddhism are in Brahmanism. At the core Brahmanism ideas are: karma- the law of posthumous retribution for the deeds of earthly life; samsara- the circle of transient events of earthly life, in which the soul rotates, moving from body to body; nirvana- the state of the highest perfection and bliss of the soul, which is achieved after it leaves the circle of transformations.

Buddhism is based on four truths:

Life is suffering;

The cause of suffering is desire;

A person is able to eliminate suffering by freeing himself from desires;

The path to ending suffering is righteous knowledge, righteous thinking, righteous speech, righteous action, and so on.

Buddhism focuses a person on the desire for spiritual perfection, moderation and tolerance, non-harm to the living, non-violence, control of one's own body, immersion in a trance. Hence: deepening into one's own world, neglect of earthly life and its economic side.

Islam: Founder - Mohammed (c. 610). Holy book - Koran. The formula for practicing Islam is: "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet."

Cult principles of Islam:

1. Salad (prayer) - obligatory prayer five times a day, on Fridays - collectively in the mosque.

2.Saum - fasting in the month of Ramadan; it is forbidden to drink, eat, inhale smoke and incense during the day, have intimate relationships; At night the bans are lifted.

3. Zakat - obligatory tax in favor of the poor, the payment of which makes wealth righteous.

4. Hajj - pilgrimage to Mecca, which every Muslim must make at least once in his life.

Features of Muslim culture is:

Firstly, in the combination of a unified system of religious values ​​and strict regulation of cult and everyday behavior with free-thinking in the interpretation of theological problems;

Secondly, in the state nature of religion and ideology: Sharia laws must be implemented by both citizens and state bodies;

Thirdly, the spirit of the struggle for the true faith and the attitude to jihad (the fight against the infidels).

4.3.3. Moral culture and its features

Morality is one of the first forms of social consciousness and a type of social relations. In a certain sense, one can say that the nature of man is his artificiality. It began to form already in primitive times, when a person carried out certain methods of violence against himself, in the form taboo - ban. Morality is formed in the conditions of civilizations and is form of regulation of relations between people with the help of public opinion.

The words "morality", "morality", "ethics" are close in meaning, but etymologically they refer to different languages. The word "morality" is of Latin origin and it meant mores, customs. The word "morality" is of Russian origin, which is derived from the root "mores". The word "ethics" is of Greek origin and means character, custom. And, despite the fact that in practical word usage these words are interchangeable, they eventually acquired different semantic connotations. If a morality is considered as an external regulator of human behavior, and includes the requirements that society imposes on him, then moral- the practice of morality, the translation of external requirements and norms into the principles of internal spiritual content. Science deals with the study of the development of morality - ethics, and the rules of human behavior in society formed in each culture are called etiquette.

Moral culture has two main aspects: values ​​(ideals) and regulations (norms).

Moral (moral) values qualities to strive for. Honesty, fidelity, courage, justice, diligence, prudence, respect for elders, patriotism are revered as moral values ​​among all peoples. And although in life people do not always show such qualities, they are highly valued, and those who possess them are respected. These values, presented in their perfect expression, act as ethical ideals.

Moral (moral) regulations (norms) are rules of conduct that are oriented toward those values. Each individual chooses in the space of culture those of them that are most suitable for him. But in every culture there is a certain system of universally recognized moral regulations, which, according to tradition, are considered mandatory for everyone. Such regulations are morality(10 commandments of Moses, 7 commandments indicated by Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount).

On the basis of the relationship of moral values ​​and moral regulators are formed principles of morality(morality, ethics).

The highest moral value good. Doing good is the main regulative of moral behavior. The opposite of good is evil. It is an anti-value, that is, something that is incompatible with moral behavior. It is believed that good and evil are not equal principles. Evil is "secondary" to good, it is the "reverse side" of good. It is no coincidence that in Christianity and Islam, God (good) is omnipotent, and the devil (evil) is only able to tempt individuals to violate the commandments of God.

An important feature of morality is its imperative, that is, the obligation of moral regulators. They are valuable in themselves, and it must be admitted that the purpose for which we follow moral principles is simply to follow them.

In cultural studies, historical and individual levels of development of morality are distinguished

First level: elementary morality: fear"What will they do to me?"

Second level: conventional morality: shame"What will they think of me?"

Third level: autonomous morality: conscience"What do I think of myself?"

There are many approaches to explain the causes of morality, among which are:

- religious - moral standards from God;

-biological- moral norms are developed in the process of evolution;

-historical- moral norms are established in specific socio-historical conditions;

-rationalistic- a person as a rational being must himself limit his freedom to reasonable norms;

-sociocultural- moral principles create a cultural environment in which only the human way of life can exist.

The historical experience of the development of morality shows that there are several ethical principles which play an important role in modern culture. If in the early stages of the development of society, moral rules regulated relations between “ours”, and in relation to others everything was allowed, then in the process of developing ties between tribes and peoples, rules are formed that limit bloodshed. One of these rules was talion- the principle expressed by the formula "life for life, an eye for an eye." The idea of ​​equal retribution underlying the talion is historically the first notion of justice. In the religious and philosophical searches of different nations, the talion began to be replaced by " golden rule"morality, which is formulated as follows:" Treat others the way you would like them to treat you.". This principle is still relevant today, as it states that no one can put himself in an exceptional position compared to others, and thus establishes equality between people. The principle of modern morality is principle of humanism. The essence of humanism is in philanthropy, the recognition of human life as the highest value, the recognition of the unity of mankind, concern for the well-being and happiness of each person.

4.3.4.Artistic culture and art

The variability of the life world and its dynamics is most clearly expressed in such a form of human activity as art culture. This most emotional type of human activity is characterized by a sharp reaction to social change, quick change of estimates, styles, expressive means.

One of the symbolic forms of culture, mastering the world through a system of images – art. Art- this is the sphere of artistic culture and its products - works of art. The most general definition art is a reflection of the world in artistic images according to the laws of beauty.

Art characterizes the ability of a person to artistically express his inner world. An artistic image, in order to become publicly available, must have a recognizable form, but at the same time not lose its uniqueness. In every epoch, with every artist and in every form of art, he each time acquires a different, unique sound, despite the fact that the artist relies on stable rules and fundamental pictorial motifs.

Therefore, it can be argued that the language of art unique he is always a mirror individual soul, and art itself is a field of experiments, a refuge for talents and geniuses who create new forms and rules. At the same time, every artist is a product of his time, and behind his individual perception of the world is that era, the essence of which he expresses in his work. Therefore, despite the fact that in art, as in no other field of activity, creativity is encouraged, that is, going beyond the "limits of the canon", it is impossible to talk about the absolute freedom of the artist's creativity, since he is always limited by the value and normative base of the art of his time. .

Art should be sublime and accessible at the same time. It reflects in the artistic form the world of feelings of contemporaries, the state of public consciousness as a whole. Art is based on its own criteria, the main of which are harmony and beauty.

So art is not only describes life, but also gives her grades, using not so much the criterion credibility how much criterion credibility. The power of art lies not in blindly copying reality, but in presenting it in a special light. This is achieved by removing the artist from life within the limits in which he can constructively combine the real with the imaginary and, thereby, clarify his relationship with others, translate the unconscious aspects of these relationships into the channel of consciousness.

Art is a factor of anthropogenesis. Together with labor it created man. The threshold of art was "pre-art", which arose from myth and ritual. The myth associated with the ritual laid the foundation for poetic, musical, choreographic arts. Therefore, in a society where art is neglected, people "go wild". In order to appreciate the significance of art, you need to understand what it "does", that is, the features of the functions it performs. These features include:

- communicative function. Unlike language, which also performs a communicative function, the language of art is universal, does not require special translation and is available to everyone. However, it is important to remember that a certain level of preparation is necessary to adequately “deobjectify” a work of art. The language of art is always "mediated" and allows communication in "historical time".

-cognitive function. Unlike science, which performs this function directly, art allows you to penetrate where no science has access - into the inner world of a person, the world of individuality.

- educational function. Unlike pedagogy, which performs this function directly, art is addressed to human feelings. Thanks to art, a person “empathizes”, that is, “lives” not only personal experience, but also expands it, "trains", educates one's emotions and feelings, and through them - the mind.

- hedonic function. Art is meant to be fun. Without this, no other function of art "works". Therefore, art "attracts". A kind of hedonistic function is a recreational function - art as entertainment.

Art - mirror of culture. The paradox is that the artist himself in his work is both independent and dependent on the public. The resolution of the paradox is that there is a commonality between the individual world of the artist and the spiritual world of other people, and artists, ultimately, in their work express the cultural paradigms of the era.

Art is divided into:

Types (literature, music, painting, poetry, architecture, theater, cinema, design, etc.);

Childbirth (prose, epic and lyric poetry, dramaturgy, ballet, pantomime, drawing, poster, etc.);

Genres (novel, essay, diary, symphony, portrait, landscape);

Styles (Gothic, Baroque, Classicism).

The concept of "art" is broader than the field of artistic culture. This is a historically established system of figurative assimilation of the experience of human life, enshrined in artistic values ​​that accumulate in the form of works of art. The social significance of works of art lies in their public representation. They are always directed towards the audience. Among the sources for changing creativity are: fantasy, the desire to change the world around in the direction of its aestheticization, imitative instinct, the need for a symbolic expression of reality.