What ended the Crimean War of 1853 1856. Crimean War

The European powers were more interested in the struggle for national interests than in the ideas of monarchy. Emperor Nicholas continued to consider Russia as a guarantor of the preservation of the former order in Europe. Unlike Peter the Great, he underestimated the importance of technical and economic changes in Europe. Nicholas I was more afraid of revolutionary movements there than of the growth of the industrial power of the West. In the end, the desire of the Russian monarch to ensure that the countries of the Old World lived in accordance with his political convictions began to be perceived by Europeans as a threat to their security. Some saw in the policy of the Russian tsar Russia's desire to subjugate Europe. Such sentiments were skillfully fueled by the foreign press, primarily the French.

For many years, she persistently created from Russia the image of a powerful and terrible enemy of Europe, a kind of "evil empire", where savagery, arbitrariness and cruelty reign. Thus, the ideas of a just war against Russia as a potential aggressor were prepared in the minds of Europeans long before the Crimean campaign. For this, the fruits of the mind of Russian intellectuals were also used. For example, on the eve of the Crimean War, articles by F.I. Tyutchev about the benefits of uniting the Slavs under the auspices of Russia, about the possible appearance of a Russian autocrat in Rome as the head of the church, etc. These materials, expressing the personal opinion of the author, were announced by the publishers as a secret doctrine of St. Petersburg diplomacy. After the revolution of 1848 in France, Napoleon Bonaparte's nephew, Napoleon III, came to power and was then proclaimed emperor. The approval of a monarch on the throne in Paris, who was not alien to the idea of ​​​​revenge and who wanted to revise the Vienna agreements, sharply worsened Franco-Russian relations. The desire of Nicholas I to preserve the principles of the Holy Alliance and the Vienna balance of power in Europe was most clearly manifested during the attempt of the rebel Hungarians to secede from the Austrian Empire (1848). Saving the Habsburg Monarchy, Nicholas I, at the request of the Austrians, brought troops into Hungary that crushed the uprising. He prevented the collapse of the Austrian Empire by keeping it as a counterweight to Prussia, and then prevented Berlin from creating an alliance of German states. By sending his fleet to Danish waters, the Russian emperor stopped the aggression of the Prussian army against Denmark. He also sided with Austria, which forced Prussia to abandon its attempt to achieve hegemony in Germany. So Nicholas managed to turn against himself and his country wide sections of Europeans (Poles, Hungarians, French, Germans, etc.). Then the Russian emperor decided to strengthen his positions in the Balkans and the Middle East with the help of hard pressure on Turkey.

The reason for the intervention was a dispute over the holy places in Palestine, where the Sultan gave some advantages to the Catholics, infringing on the rights of the Orthodox. So, the keys to the Bethlehem temple were transferred from the Greeks to the Catholics, whose interests were represented by Napoleon III. Emperor Nicholas stood up for fellow believers. He demanded from the Ottoman Empire a special right for the Russian Tsar to be the patron of all its Orthodox subjects. Having received a refusal, Nicholas sent troops into Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under the nominal authority of the Sultan, "on bail", until his demands were met. In response, Turkey, counting on the help of the European powers, declared war on Russia on October 4, 1853. Petersburg hoped for the support of Austria and Prussia, as well as the neutral position of England, believing that Napoleonic France would not dare to intervene in the conflict. Nicholas counted on the monarchical solidarity and international isolation of Bonaparte's nephew. However, European monarchs were more concerned not with who sits on the French throne, but with Russian activity in the Balkans and the Middle East. At the same time, the ambitious claims of Nicholas I to the role of an international arbiter did not correspond to the economic possibilities of Russia. At that time, Britain and France were sharply moving forward, desiring a redistribution of spheres of influence and the displacement of Russia into the category of secondary powers. Such claims had a significant material and technical base. towards the middle 19th century industrial lag of Russia (especially in mechanical engineering and metallurgy) from Western countries, primarily England and France, only increased. So, at the beginning of the XIX century. the production of Russian pig iron reached 10 million poods and was approximately equal to English. After 50 years, it has grown 1.5 times, and English - 14 times, amounting to 15 and 140 million poods, respectively. According to this indicator, the country has dropped from 1st - 2nd place in the world to eighth. The gap was also observed in other industries. In general, in terms of industrial production, Russia by the middle of the 19th century. inferior to France by 7.2 times, Great Britain - by 18 times. The Crimean War can be divided into two major stages. At the first, from 1853 to the beginning of 1854, Russia fought only with Turkey. It was a classic Russian-Turkish war with the already traditional Danube, Caucasian and Black Sea theaters of military operations. The second stage began in 1854, when England, France, and then Sardinia took the side of Turkey.

This turn of events radically changed the course of the war. Now Russia had to fight a powerful coalition of states that collectively outnumbered it by almost twice its population and more than three times its national income. In addition, England and France surpassed Russia in terms of the scale and quality of armaments, primarily in the field of naval forces, small arms and means of communication. In this regard, the Crimean War opened a new era of wars of the industrial era, when the importance of military equipment and the military-economic potential of states sharply increased. Taking into account the unsuccessful experience of Napoleon's Russian campaign, England and France imposed on Russia a new version of the war, tested by them in the struggle against the countries of Asia and Africa. This option was usually used against states and territories with an unusual climate, poor infrastructure and vast spaces that seriously hampered advancement inland. The characteristic features of such a war were the capture of coastal territory and the creation of a base there for further operations. Such a war presupposed the presence of a strong fleet, which both European powers possessed in sufficient numbers. A strategically similar option had the goal of cutting off Russia from the coast and driving it deep into the mainland, making it dependent on the owners coastal zones. If we take into account how much effort the Russian state spent on the struggle for access to the seas, then we must recognize the exceptional importance of the Crimean War for the fate of the country.

The entry into the war of the advanced powers of Europe significantly expanded the geography of the conflict. The Anglo-French squadrons (they were based on steam-powered ships) carried out a grandiose military onslaught at that time on coastal zones Russia (on the Black, Azov, Baltic, White Seas and the Pacific Ocean). In addition to the capture of coastal areas, such a spread of aggression was aimed at disorienting the Russian command in the question of the location of the main strike. With the entry of England and France into the war, the North-West (the region of the Baltic, White and Barents Seas), the Azov-Black Sea (the Crimean Peninsula and the Azov-Black Sea coast) and the Pacific (the coast of the Russian Far East) were added to the Danube and Caucasian theaters of military operations. The geography of the attacks testified to the desire of the militant leaders of the allies, if successful, to wrest from Russia the mouth of the Danube, the Crimea, the Caucasus, the Baltic states, Finland (in particular, this was assumed by the plan of the British Prime Minister G. Palmerston). This war demonstrated that Russia has no serious allies on the European continent. So, unexpectedly for St. Petersburg, Austria showed hostility, demanding the withdrawal of Russian troops from Moldavia and Wallachia. Because of the danger of the expansion of the conflict, the Danubian army left these principalities. A neutral but unfriendly position was taken by Prussia and Sweden. As a result, the Russian Empire found itself alone, in the face of a powerful hostile coalition. In particular, this forced Nicholas I to abandon the grandiose plan of landing in Constantinople and move on to the defense of his own lands. In addition, the position of European countries forced the Russian leadership to withdraw a significant part of the troops from the theater of war and keep them on the western border, primarily in Poland, in order to prevent the expansion of aggression with the possible involvement of Austria and Prussia in the conflict. Nikolaevskaya foreign policy, which set global goals in Europe and the Middle East without taking into account international realities, has failed.

Danube and Black Sea theaters of military operations (1853-1854)

Having declared war on Russia, Turkey advanced against the Danube Army under the command of General Mikhail Gorchakov (82 thousand people) a 150,000-strong army under the command of Omer Pasha. Gorchakov acted passively, choosing defensive tactics. The Turkish command, using its numerical advantage, took offensive actions on the left bank of the Danube. Having crossed at Turtukai with a 14,000-strong detachment, Omer Pasha moved to Oltenitsa, where the first major clash of this war took place.

Battle of Oltenitsa (1853). On October 23, 1853, the troops of Omer Pasha were met by an avant-garde detachment under the command of General Soymonov (6 thousand people) from the 4th Corps of General Dannenberg. Despite the lack of forces, Soymonov resolutely attacked the detachment of Omer Pasha. The Russians had already almost turned the tide of battle in their favor, but unexpectedly received an order from General Dannenberg (who was not present on the battlefield) to retreat. The corps commander considered it impossible to keep Oltenitsa under fire from Turkish batteries from the right bank. In turn, the Turks not only did not pursue the Russians, but also retreated back across the Danube. The Russians lost about 1 thousand people in the battle near Oltenitsa, the Turks - 2 thousand people. The unsuccessful outcome of the first battle of the campaign that had begun had an unfavorable effect on the morale of the Russian troops.

Battle of Chetati (1853). The Turkish command made a new major offensive attempt on the left bank of the Danube in December on the right flank of Gorchakov's troops, near Vidin. There, an 18,000-strong Turkish detachment crossed to the left bank. On December 25, 1853, he was attacked near the village of Chetati by the Tobolsk Infantry Regiment under the command of Colonel Baumgarten (2.5 thousand people). At the critical moment of the battle, when the Tobolsk regiment had already lost half of its composition and fired all the shells, a detachment of General Belgard (2.5 thousand people) arrived in time to help him. An unexpected counterattack by fresh forces decided the matter. The Turks retreated, losing 3 thousand people. The damage of the Russians amounted to about 2 thousand people. After the battle at Cetati, the Turks made attempts at the beginning of 1854 to attack the Russians at Zhurzhi (January 22) and Calaras (February 20), but were again repulsed. In turn, the Russians, with successful searches on the right bank of the Danube, managed to destroy the Turkish river fleets in Ruschuk, Nikopol and Silistra.

. Meanwhile, a battle took place in the Sinop Bay, which became the most striking event of this unfortunate war for Russia. On November 18, 1853, the Black Sea squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Nakhimov (6 battleships, 2 frigates) destroyed the Turkish squadron under the command of Osman Pasha (7 frigates and 9 other ships) in Sinop Bay. The Turkish squadron was heading to the coast of the Caucasus for the landing of a large landing force. On the way, she took refuge from the bad weather in Sinop Bay. Here, on November 16, it was blocked by the Russian fleet. However, the Turks and their English instructors did not allow the idea of ​​a Russian attack on the bay protected by coastal batteries. Nevertheless, Nakhimov decided to attack the Turkish fleet. The Russian ships entered the bay so swiftly that the coastal artillery did not have time to inflict significant damage on them. This maneuver was also unexpected for the Turkish ships, which did not have time to take the correct position. As a result, coastal artillery could not conduct accurate fire at the beginning of the battle, for fear of hurting their own. Undoubtedly, Nakhimov took risks. But that was not the risk of a reckless adventurer, but of an experienced naval commander, confident in the skill and courage of his crews. Ultimately, the decisive role in the battle was played by the skill of Russian sailors and the skillful interaction of their ships. In critical moments of the battle, they always bravely went to help each other. Of great importance in this battle was the superiority of the Russian fleet in artillery (720 guns against 510 guns on the Turkish squadron and 38 guns on coastal batteries). Of particular note is the effect of the bomb cannons used for the first time, firing explosive spherical bombs. They had tremendous destructive power and quickly caused significant damage and fires on the wooden ships of the Turks. During the four-hour battle, Russian artillery fired 18 thousand shells, which completely destroyed the Turkish fleet and most of the coastal batteries. Only the steamer "Taif" under the command of the English adviser Slade managed to break out of the bay. In fact, Nakhimov won a victory not only over the fleet, but also over the fortress. The losses of the Turks amounted to over 3 thousand people. 200 people was taken prisoner (including the wounded Osman Pasha).

The Russians lost 37 people. killed and 235 wounded. "The destruction of the Turkish fleet in Sinop by a squadron under my command cannot but leave a glorious page in the history of the Black Sea Fleet ... I express my sincere gratitude ... to the gentlemen of the commanders of ships and frigates for the composure and precise decision of their ships according to this disposition during heavy enemy fire ... I appeal with gratitude to the officers for the fearless and accurate performance of their duty, I thank the teams that fought like lions, "- these were the words of the Nakhimov order of November 23, 1853. After that, the Russian fleet won dominance in the Black Sea. The defeat of the Turks at Sinop thwarted their plans to land troops on the coast of the Caucasus and deprived Turkey of the opportunity to conduct active military operations on the Black Sea. This hastened the entry into the war of England and France. The Battle of Sinop is one of the brightest victories of the Russian fleet. It was also the last major naval battle of the era of sailing ships. The victory in this battle demonstrated the impotence of the wooden fleet in the face of new, more powerful artillery weapons. The effectiveness of the fire of Russian bombing cannons hastened the creation of armored ships in Europe.

Siege of Silistria (1854). In the spring, the Russian army began active operations across the Danube. In March, she moved to the right side near Brailov and settled in Northern Dobruja. The main part of the Danube army, the general leadership of which was now carried out by Field Marshal Paskevich, was concentrated at Silistria. This fortress was defended by a 12,000-strong garrison. The siege began on 4 May. The assault on the fortress on May 17 ended in failure due to the lack of forces brought into battle (only 3 battalions were sent to attack). After that, the siege work began. On May 28, 72-year-old Paskevich was shell-shocked by a cannonball under the walls of Silistria and left for Iasi. Complete blockade the fort was not reached. The garrison could receive help from outside. By June it had grown to 20,000 people. June 9, 1854 was supposed to be a new assault. However, due to the hostile position of Austria, Paskevich gave the order to lift the siege and withdraw beyond the Danube. Russian losses during the siege amounted to 2.2 thousand people.

Battle of Zhurzhi (1854). After the Russians lifted the siege of Silistria, the army of Omer Pasha (30 thousand people) crossed in the Ruschuk region to the left bank of the Danube and moved to Bucharest. Near Zhurzhi, Soimonov's detachment (9 thousand people) stopped her. In a fierce battle near Zhurzha on June 26, he forced the Turks to retreat across the river again. The damage of the Russians amounted to over 1 thousand people. The Turks lost about 5 thousand people in this battle. The victory at Zhurzhi was the last success of the Russian troops in the Danube theater of operations. In May - June, Anglo-French troops (70 thousand people) landed in the Varna region to help the Turks. Already in July, 3 French divisions moved to Dobruja, but an outbreak of cholera forced them to return. Disease took its toll on the allies in the Balkans. Their army was melting before our eyes not from bullets and buckshot, but from cholera and fever. Not taking part in the battles, the Allies lost 10 thousand people from the epidemic. At the same time, under pressure from Austria, the Russians began to evacuate their units from the Danube principalities and in September finally withdrew beyond the Prut River to their own territory. Military operations on the Danube theater ended. The main goal of the Allies in the Balkans was fulfilled, and they moved on to a new stage of hostilities. Now the main object of their onslaught was the Crimean peninsula.

Azov-Black Sea theater of operations (1854-1856)

The main events of the war unfolded on the Crimean Peninsula (from which this war got its name), or rather on its southwestern coast, where the main Russian naval base on the Black Sea, the port of Sevastopol, was located. With the loss of Crimea and Sevastopol, Russia lost the ability to control the Black Sea and pursue an active policy in the Balkans. The Allies were attracted not only by the strategic advantages of this peninsula. Choosing the place of the main blow, the allied command counted on the support of the Muslim population of Crimea. It was supposed to be a significant help for the allied troops who were far from their native lands (after the Crimean War, 180 thousand Crimean Tatars emigrated to Turkey). In order to mislead the Russian command, the allied squadron carried out a powerful bombardment of Odessa back in April, causing significant damage to coastal batteries. In the summer of 1854, the allied fleet began active operations in the Baltic Sea. For disorientation, the foreign press was actively used, from which the Russian leadership drew information about the plans of their opponents. It should be noted that the Crimean campaign demonstrated the increased role of the press in the war. The Russian command assumed that the Allies would strike the main blow at the southwestern borders of the empire, in particular Odessa.

To protect the southwestern borders in Bessarabia, large forces of 180 thousand people were concentrated. Another 32 thousand were located between Nikolaev and Odessa. In the Crimea, the total number of troops barely reached 50 thousand people. Thus, in the area of ​​​​the intended strike, the Allies had a numerical advantage. They had even greater superiority in the naval forces. So, in terms of the number of warships, the allied squadron surpassed the Black Sea Fleet three times, and in terms of steam ships - 11 times. Taking advantage of significant superiority at sea, the allied fleet in September launched the largest landing operation. 300 transport ships with a 60,000-strong landing under the cover of 89 warships set sail for the western coast of Crimea. This landing operation demonstrated the arrogance of the Western Allies. The campaign plan was not fully thought out. So, there was no reconnaissance, and the command determined the landing site after the ships went to sea. And the very time of the campaign (September) testified to the confidence of the allies to finish off Sevastopol in a matter of weeks. However, the thoughtlessness of the actions of the allies was compensated by the behavior of the Russian command. The commander of the Russian army in the Crimea, Admiral Prince Alexander Menshikov, did not make the slightest attempt to prevent the landing. While a small detachment of allied troops (3 thousand people) occupied Evpatoria and was looking for a convenient place for landing, Menshikov with a 33,000-strong army was waiting for further events in positions near the Alma River. The passivity of the Russian command allowed the allies, despite bad weather conditions and the condition of the soldiers weakened after the sea rolling, to carry out a landing from September 1 to 6.

Battle of the Alma River (1854). Having landed, the allied army under the general leadership of Marshal Saint-Arno (55 thousand people) moved along the coast to the south, to Sevastopol. A parallel course was the fleet, ready to support its troops with fire from the sea. The first battle of the Allies with the army of Prince Menshikov took place on the Alma River. September 8, 1854 Menshikov was preparing to stop the Allied army on the steep and precipitous left bank of the river. Hoping to take advantage of his strong natural position, he did little to strengthen it. The impregnability of the left flank, facing the sea, was especially overestimated, where there was only one path along the cliff. This place was practically abandoned by the troops, including because of the fear of shelling from the sea. The French division of General Bosquet took full advantage of a similar situation, which successfully overcame this sector and climbed to the heights of the left bank. Allied ships supported their own with naval fire. In the rest of the sectors, especially on the right flank, in the meantime, there was a hot frontal battle. In it, the Russians, despite heavy losses from rifle fire, tried to push back the troops that had crossed the river with bayonet counterattacks. Here the onslaught of the allies was temporarily delayed. But the appearance of Bosquet's division from the left flank created a threat of outflanking Menshikov's army, who was forced to retreat.

A well-known role in the defeat of the Russians was played by the lack of interaction between their right and left flanks, commanded respectively by Generals Gorchakov and Kiryakov. In the battle on the Alma, the superiority of the allies manifested itself not only in numbers, but also in the level of weapons. So, their rifled guns were significantly superior to Russian smoothbore guns in terms of range, accuracy and frequency of fire. The maximum firing range from a smoothbore gun was 300 steps, rifled - 1,200 steps. As a result, allied infantry could hit Russian soldiers with rifle fire, while being out of range of their shots. Moreover, rifled guns were twice as long as the Russian guns that fired grapeshot. This made the artillery preparation of the infantry attack ineffective. Before approaching the enemy at a distance of an aimed shot, the artillerymen were already in the zone of rifle fire and suffered heavy losses. In the battle on the Alma, the allied riflemen easily shot down the artillery servants on Russian batteries. The Russians lost over 5 thousand people in battle, the Allies ~ over 3 thousand people. The Allies' lack of cavalry prevented them from actively pursuing Menshikov's army. He retreated to Bakhchisaray, leaving the road to Sevastopol unprotected. This victory allowed the allies to gain a foothold in the Crimea and opened the way for them to Sevastopol. The Battle of the Alma showed the effectiveness and firepower of the new small arms, in which the old system of formation in close columns became suicidal. During the battle on the Alma, Russian troops for the first time spontaneously used a new battle formation - a rifle chain.

. On September 14, the allied army occupied Balaklava, and on September 17 approached Sevastopol. The main base of the fleet was well protected from the sea by 14 powerful batteries. But from the land, the city was poorly fortified, because, based on the experience of past wars, an opinion was formed about the impossibility of landing a large landing in the Crimea. The city had a garrison of 7,000. It was already necessary to create fortifications around the city just before the landing of the Allied troops in the Crimea. The outstanding military engineer Eduard Ivanovich Totleben played a huge role in this. Behind short term with the help of the defenders and the population of the city, Totleben did what seemed impossible - he created new bastions and other fortifications that surrounded Sevastopol from the land. The effectiveness of Totleben's actions is evidenced by an entry in the journal of the head of defense of the city, Admiral Vladimir Alekseevich Kornilov, dated September 4, 1854: "We did more in a week than we did in a year before." During this period, the skeleton of that system of fortifications literally grew out of the ground, which turned Sevastopol into a first-class land fortress that managed to withstand an 11-month siege. Admiral Kornilov became the head of the city's defense. "Brothers, the tsar is counting on you. We are defending Sevastopol. There can be no question of surrender. There will be no retreat. Whoever orders to retreat, stab him. I will order to retreat - stab me too!" In order to prevent the enemy fleet from breaking through into the Sevastopol Bay, 5 battleships and 2 frigates were flooded at the entrance to it (later a number of ships were used for this). Part of the guns arrived from the ships on land. Of the naval crews (a total of 24 thousand people), 22 battalions were formed, which strengthened the garrison to 20 thousand people. When the allies approached the city, they were met by an unfinished, but still strong system of fortifications with 341 guns (against 141 in the allied army). The allied command did not dare to attack the city on the move and began siege work. With the approach of Menshikov's army to Sevastopol (September 18), the city garrison grew to 35 thousand people. Communication between Sevastopol and the rest of Russia has been preserved. The allies used their firepower to capture the city. On October 5, 1854, the 1st bombardment began. It was attended by the army and navy. From land, 120 guns fired at the city, from the sea - 1,340 guns of ships. This fiery whirlwind was supposed to destroy the fortifications and crush the will of their defenders to resist. However, there was no unpunished beating. The Russians responded with accurate fire from batteries and naval guns.

The hot artillery duel lasted five hours. Despite the huge superiority in artillery, the allied fleet was badly damaged and was forced to retreat. And here an important role was played by Russian bombing cannons, which proved themselves well at Sinop. After that, the Allies abandoned the use of the fleet in the bombing of the city. At the same time, the fortifications of the city were not seriously damaged. Such a decisive and skillful rebuff by the Russians came as a complete surprise to the allied command, which expected to take the city with little bloodshed. The defenders of the city could celebrate a very important moral victory. But their joy was overshadowed by the death during the shelling of Admiral Kornilov. The defense of the city was headed by Pyotr Stepanovich Nakhimov. The allies were convinced of the impossibility of quickly coping with the fortress. They abandoned the assault and moved on to a long siege. In turn, the defenders of Sevastopol continued to improve their defense. Thus, a system of advanced fortifications was erected in front of the line of bastions (the Selenga and Volyn redoubts, the Kamchatka lunette, etc.). This made it possible to create a zone of continuous rifle and artillery fire in front of the main defensive structures. In the same period, Menshikov's army attacked the allies at Balaklava and Inkerman. Although she was not able to achieve decisive success, the Allies, having suffered heavy losses in these battles, ceased active operations until 1855. The Allies were forced to spend the winter in the Crimea. Unprepared for the winter campaign, the Allied forces were in dire need. But nevertheless, they managed to organize the supply of their siege units - first by sea, and then with the help of a laid railway line from Balaklava near Sevastopol.

Having survived the winter, the Allies became more active. In March - May, they carried out the 2nd and 3rd bombardments. The shelling was especially cruel on Easter (in April). Fire on the city led 541 guns. They were answered by 466 guns, which lacked ammunition. By that time, the Allied army in the Crimea had grown to 170 thousand people. against 110 thousand people. Russians (of which 40 thousand people live in Sevastopol). After the Easter bombardment, the siege troops were led by General Pelissier, a supporter of decisive action. On May 11 and 26, French units captured a number of fortifications in front of the main line of bastions. But they failed to achieve more because of the courageous resistance of the defenders of the city. In battles, the ground units supported the ships of the Black Sea Fleet that remained afloat with fire (the steam frigates "Vladimir", "Khersones", etc.). General Mikhail Gorchakov, who led the Russian army in the Crimea after the resignation of Menshikov, considered resistance useless due to the superiority of the allies. However, the new Emperor Alexander II (Nicholas I died on February 18, 1855) demanded to continue the defense. He believed that the rapid surrender of Sevastopol would lead to the loss of the Crimean peninsula, which would be "too difficult or even impossible" to return back to Russia. On June 6, 1855, after the 4th bombardment, the Allies launched a powerful assault on the Ship Side. 44 thousand people participated in it. This onslaught was heroically repulsed by 20,000 Sevastopol residents, led by General Stepan Khrulev. On June 28, while inspecting positions, Admiral Nakhimov was mortally wounded. There is no longer a man under whom, according to contemporaries, "the fall of Sevastopol seemed unthinkable." The besieged experienced more and more difficulties. For three shots, they could only respond with one.

After the victory on the Chernaya River (August 4), the allied forces intensified their pressure on Sevastopol. In August, they carried out the 5th and 6th bombardments, from which the losses of the defenders reached 2-3 thousand people. in a day. On August 27, a new assault began, in which 60 thousand people participated. It was reflected in all places except for the key position of the besieged ~ Malakhov Kurgan. It was captured by a surprise attack at lunchtime by the French division of General MacMahon. To ensure secrecy, the allies did not give a special signal for the attack - it began according to synchronized clocks (according to some experts, for the first time in military history). The defenders of Malakhov Kurgan made desperate attempts to defend their positions. They fought with everything that came to hand: shovels, picks, stones, banners. The 9th, 12th and 15th divisions of the Russians took part in the furious battles for Malakhov Kurgan, which lost all the senior officers who personally led the soldiers into counterattacks. In the last of them, the head of the 15th division, General Yuferov, was stabbed to death with bayonets. The French managed to defend the captured positions. The success of the case was decided by the firmness of General MacMahon, who refused to retreat. To the order of General Pelissier to retreat to the starting lines, he answered with the historical phrase: "I am here - I will stay here." The loss of Malakhov Kurgan decided the fate of Sevastopol. On the evening of August 27, 1855, on the orders of General Gorchakov, the Sevastopol residents left the southern part of the city and crossed the bridge (created by engineer Buchmeyer) to the North. At the same time, powder magazines were blown up, shipyards and fortifications were destroyed, and the remnants of the fleet were flooded. The battles for Sevastopol ended. The Allies did not achieve his surrender. The Russian armed forces in the Crimea survived and were ready for further battles. "Brave comrades! It is sad and hard to leave Sevastopol to our enemies, but remember what a sacrifice we made on the altar of the fatherland in 1812. Moscow is worth Sevastopol! We left it after the immortal battle under Borodin.

The three hundred and forty-nine-day defense of Sevastopol surpasses Borodino! ”The order for the army of August 30, 1855 said. The Allies lost 72 thousand people during the Sevastopol defense (not counting the sick and those who died from diseases). The Russians - 102 thousand people. In glorious The chronicle of this defense is inscribed with the names of admirals V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov, engineer E.I. Totleben, surgeon N.I. Pirogov, general S.A. Khrulev, captain G.A. Butakov, sailor P.M. "Cats, officer A.V. Melnikov, soldier A. Eliseev and many other heroes, united since then by one valiant name - "Sevastopol". The first sisters of mercy in Russia appeared in Sevastopol. Participants in the defense were awarded the medal "For the Defense of Sevastopol". The defense of Sevastopol was the culmination of the Crimean War, and after its fall, the parties soon began peace talks in Paris.

Battle of Balaklava (1854). During the Sevastopol defense, the Russian army in the Crimea gave the allies a number of important battles. The first of these was the battle of Balaklava (a settlement on the coast, east of Sevastopol), where the supply base for British troops in the Crimea was located. When planning an attack on Balaklava, the Russian command saw the main goal not in mastering this base, but in diverting the allies from Sevastopol. Therefore, rather modest forces were allocated for the offensive - parts of the 12th and 16th infantry divisions under the command of General Liprandi (16 thousand people). On October 13, 1854, they attacked the forward fortifications of the allied forces. The Russians captured a number of redoubts that were defended by the Turkish units. But further onslaught was stopped by a counterattack by the English cavalry. In an effort to build on success, the Guards Cavalry Brigade, led by Lord Cardigan, continued the attack and arrogantly went deeper into the position Russian troops. Here she ran into a Russian battery and came under cannon fire, and then was attacked on the flank by a detachment of lancers under the command of Colonel Eropkin. After losing most of the brigade, Cardigan withdrew. The Russian command was unable to develop this tactical success due to the lack of forces thrown to Balaklava. The Russians did not engage in a new battle with additional allied units rushing to the aid of the British. Both sides lost 1,000 men in this battle. The Balaklava battle forced the allies to postpone the planned attack on Sevastopol. At the same time, he allowed them to better understand their weak points and strengthen Balaclava, which became the sea gate of the allied siege troops. This battle received a wide response in Europe due to the high losses among the English guards. The words French general Bosquet: "It's great, but it's not a war."

. Encouraged by the Balaklava affair, Menshikov decided to give the allies a more serious fight. The Russian commander was prompted to this by the reports of the defectors that the allies wished to end Sevastopol before winter and planned to storm the city in the coming days. Menshikov planned to attack the British units in the area of ​​the Inkerman Heights and push them back to Balaklava. This would allow the troops of the French and British to be separated, which would make it easier to defeat them one by one. On October 24, 1854, Menshikov's troops (82 thousand people) gave battle to the Anglo-French army (63 thousand people) in the region of the Inkerman Heights. The Russians delivered the main blow on their left flank by detachments of generals Soimonov and Pavlov (37 thousand people in total) against the English corps of Lord Raglan (16 thousand people). However, a well-conceived plan was distinguished by poor study and preparation. Rugged terrain, lack of maps, and thick fog led to poor coordination of the attackers. The Russian command actually lost control over the course of the battle. Detachments were introduced into the battle in parts, which reduced the impact force. The battle with the British broke up into a series of separate fierce battles, in which the Russians suffered heavy damage from rifled rifle fire. By shooting from them, the British managed to destroy up to half of the composition of some Russian units. During the attack, General Soimonov was also killed. In this case, the courage of the attackers was shattered by a more effective weapon. Nevertheless, the Russians fought with relentless stubbornness and eventually began to push the British, knocking them out of most positions.

On the right flank, a detachment of General Timofeev (10 thousand people) forged part of the French forces with their attack. However, due to the inaction in the center of the detachment of General Gorchakov (20 thousand people), which was supposed to distract the French troops, they were able to come to the rescue of the British. The outcome of the battle was decided by the attack of the French detachment of General Bosquet (9 thousand people), who managed to push back the Russian regiments, which were exhausted and suffered heavy losses, to their original positions. London Correspondent of The Morning Chronicle - From that moment on, the Russians could no longer hope for success, but, despite this, there was not the slightest wavering and disorder in their ranks. Struck by the fire of our artillery, they closed their ranks and bravely repelled all the attacks of the allies ... Sometimes for five minutes a terrible battle lasted, in which the soldiers fought with bayonets, then butts. It is impossible to believe without being an eyewitness that there are troops in the world who can retreat as brilliantly as the Russians ... This is the retreat of the Russians Homer would compare it to the retreat of a lion, when, surrounded by hunters, he retreats step by step, shaking his mane, turning his proud forehead towards his enemies, and then again continues on his way, flowing towards bloody from the many wounds inflicted on him, but unshakably courageous, undefeated. The Allies lost about 6 thousand people in this battle, the Russians - more than 10 thousand people. Although Menshikov was unable to fulfill his intended goal, the Battle of Inkerman played an important role in the fate of Sevastopol. It did not allow the allies to carry out their planned assault on the fortress and forced them to go over to a winter siege.

Assault on Evpatoria (1855). During the winter campaign of 1855, the largest event in the Crimea was the storming of Evpatoria by the Russian troops of General Stepan Khrulev (19 thousand people). In the city there was a 35,000-strong Turkish corps under the command of Omer Pasha, who threatened from here the rear communications of the Russian army in the Crimea. To prevent the offensive actions of the Turks, the Russian command decided to capture Evpatoria. The lack of allocated forces was planned to be compensated by the surprise of the attack. However, this was not achieved. The garrison, having learned about the assault, prepared to repel the onslaught. When the Russians went on the attack, they were met with heavy fire, including from the ships of the allied squadron, which was on the Evpatoria roadstead. Fearing heavy losses and the unsuccessful outcome of the assault, Khrulev gave the order to stop the attack. Having lost 750 people, the troops returned to their original positions. Despite the failure, the raid on Yevpatoria paralyzed the activity of the Turkish army, which never took active action here. The news of the failure near Evpatoria, apparently, hastened the death of Emperor Nicholas I. On February 18, 1855, he died. Before his death, with his last order, he managed to remove the commander of the Russian troops in the Crimea, Prince Menshikov, for the failure of the assault.

Battle on the Chernaya River (1855). On August 4, 1855, on the banks of the Chernaya River (10 km from Sevastopol), the Russian army under the command of General Gorchakov (58 thousand people) fought with three French and one Sardinian divisions under the command of Generals Pelissier and Lamarmor (about 60 thousand in total). pers.). For the offensive, which had the goal of helping the besieged Sevastopol, Gorchakov singled out two large detachments led by Generals Liprandi and Read. The main battle broke out on the right flank for the Fedyukhin Heights. The assault on this well-fortified French position began due to a misunderstanding, which clearly reflected the inconsistency of the actions of the Russian command in this battle. After the Liprandi detachment went on the offensive on the left flank, Gorchakov sent a note to Read with an orderly, "It's time to start," meaning to support this attack with fire. Read, on the other hand, realized that it was time to start attacking, and moved his 12th division (General Martinau) to storm the Fedyukhin Heights. The division was brought into battle in parts: the Odessa, then the Azov and Ukrainian regiments. "The swiftness of the Russians was amazing," a correspondent of one of the British newspapers wrote about this attack. "They did not waste time shooting and rushed forward with an extraordinary impulse. French soldiers .. . assured me that the Russians had never shown such ardor in battle." Under deadly fire, the attackers managed to overcome the river and the canal, and then reached the advanced fortifications of the Allies, where a heated battle began to boil. Here, on the Fedyukhin Heights, not only the fate of Sevastopol was at stake, but also the honor of the Russian army.

In this final field battle in the Crimea, the Russians, in a furious impulse, strove for the last time to defend their hard-bought right to be called invincible. Despite the heroism of the soldiers, the Russians suffered heavy losses and were repulsed. The units allocated for the attack were not enough. Read's initiative changed the initial plan of the commander. Instead of helping Liprandi's units, which had some success, Gorchakov sent a reserve 5th division (General Vranken) to support the assault on the Fedyukhin Heights. This division met the same fate. Read led the regiments into battle in turn, and apart they also did not succeed. In a stubborn desire to turn the tide of the battle, Read led the attack himself and was killed. Then Gorchakov again transferred his efforts to the left Fang to Liprandi, but the Allies managed to pull up large forces there, and the offensive failed. By 10 o'clock in the morning, after a 6-hour battle, the Russians, having lost 8 thousand people, withdrew to their original positions. The damage of the Franco-Sardinians - about 2 thousand people. After the battle on Chernaya, the allies were able to allocate the main forces for the assault on Sevastopol. The battle on the Chernaya and other failures in the Crimean War meant the loss for almost a century (up to the victory at Stalingrad) of the feeling of superiority previously won by the Russian soldier over the Western European.

Capture of Kerch, Anapa, Kinburn. Diversions on the Coast (1855). During the siege of Sevastopol, the allies continued their active onslaught on the Russian coast. In May 1855, 16,000 Allied troops under the command of Generals Brown and Otmar captured Kerch and plundered this city. Russian forces in the eastern part of the Crimea under the command of General Karl Wrangel (about 10 thousand people), stretched along the coast, did not show any resistance to the paratroopers. This success of the Allies cleared the way for them to the Sea of ​​Azov (its transformation into an open maritime zone was part of the plans of England) and cut off the communication of the Crimea with North Caucasus. After the capture of Kerch, the allied squadron (about 70 ships) entered the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov. She fired at Taganrog, Genichevsk, Yeysk and other coastal points. However, the local garrisons rejected offers of surrender and repelled small landing attempts. As a result of this raid on the Azov coast, significant stocks of grain were destroyed, which were intended for the Crimean army. The allies also landed troops on the eastern coast of the Black Sea, occupying the abandoned and destroyed Russian fortress of Anapa. The last operation in the Azov-Black Sea theater of military operations was the capture of the Kinburn fortress by 8,000 French troops of General Bazin on October 5, 1855. The fortress was defended by a 1,500-strong garrison led by General Kokhanovich. On the third day of the bombing, he capitulated. This operation gained fame primarily for the fact that armored ships were used for the first time in it. Built according to the drawings of Emperor Napoleon III, they easily destroyed the stone Kinburn fortifications with gunfire. At the same time, the shells of the defenders of Kinburn, fired from a distance of 1 km or less, broke on the sides of the battleships without much damage to these floating fortresses. The capture of Kinburn was the last success of the Anglo-French troops in the Crimean War.

The Caucasian theater of operations was somewhat in the shadow of the events unfolding in the Crimea. Nevertheless, the actions in the Caucasus were very important. This was the only theater of operations where the Russians could directly attack enemy territory. It is here that the Russian armed forces have made their biggest strides in working out more acceptable peace conditions. The victories in the Caucasus were largely due to the high fighting qualities of the Russian Caucasian army. She had many years of experience in military operations in the mountains. Its soldiers were constantly in the conditions of a small mountain war, had experienced combat commanders aimed at decisive action. At the beginning of the war, the Russian forces in Transcaucasia under the command of General Bebutov (30 thousand people) were more than three times inferior to the Turkish troops under the command of Abdi Pasha (100 thousand people). Using their numerical advantage, the Turkish command immediately went on the offensive. The main forces (40 thousand people) moved to Alexandropol. To the north, on Akhaltsikhe, the Ardagan detachment (18 thousand people) advanced. The Turkish command expected to break through to the Caucasus and establish direct contact with the troops of the highlanders, who had been fighting against Russia for several decades. The implementation of such a plan could lead to the isolation of a small Russian army in the Transcaucasus and its destruction.

Battle of Bayardun and Akhaltsikhe (1853). The first serious battle between the Russians and the main forces of the Turks marching on Alexandropol took place on November 2, 1853, near Bayandur (16 km from Alexandropol). Here stood the advance detachment of Russians, led by Prince Orbeliani (7 thousand people). Despite the significant numerical superiority of the Turks, Orbeliani boldly entered the battle and was able to hold out until the approach of the main forces of Bebutov. Having learned about the approach of fresh reinforcements to the Russians, Abdi Pasha did not get involved in a more serious battle and retreated to the Arpachay River. Meanwhile, the Ardagan detachment of Turks crossed the Russian border and reached the approaches to Akhaltsikhe. On November 12, 1853, his path was blocked by a detachment twice as small under the command of Prince Andronnikov (7 thousand people). After a fierce battle, the Turks suffered a heavy defeat and retreated to Kars. The Turkish offensive in Transcaucasia was stopped.

Battle of Bashkadyklar (1853). After the victory at Akhaltsikhe, Bebutov's corps (up to 13,000 men) went on the offensive itself. The Turkish command tried to stop Bebutov at a powerful defensive line near Bashkadyklar. Despite the triple numerical superiority of the Turks (besides, confident in the impregnability of their positions), Bebutov boldly attacked them on November 19, 1853. Having broken through the right flank, the Russians inflicted a heavy defeat on the Turkish army. Having lost 6 thousand people, she retreated in disarray. Russian damage amounted to 1.5 thousand people. The success of the Russians at Bashkadiklar stunned the Turkish army and its allies in the North Caucasus. This victory significantly strengthened Russia's position in the Caucasus region. After the Battle of Bashkadyklar Turkish troops for several months (until the end of May 1854) they did not show any activity, which allowed the Russians to strengthen the Caucasian direction.

Battle of Nigoeti and Chorokha (1854). In 1854, the strength of the Turkish army in Transcaucasia was increased to 120 thousand people. It was headed by Mustafa Zarif Pasha. Russian forces were only brought up to 40 thousand people. Bebutov divided them into three detachments, which covered the Russian border in the following way. The central section in the Alexandropol direction was guarded by the main detachment led by Bebutov himself (21 thousand people). To the right of Akhaltsikhe to the Black Sea, the Akhaltsikhe detachment of Andronikov (14 thousand people) covered the border. On the southern flank, to protect the Erivan direction, a detachment of Baron Wrangel (5 thousand people) was formed. Parts of the Akhaltsikhe detachment on the Batumi section of the border were the first to take the blow. From here, from the Batum region, a detachment of Gassan Pasha (12 thousand people) moved to Kutaisi. On May 28, 1854, a detachment of General Eristov (3 thousand people) blocked his path near the village of Nigoeti. The Turks were defeated and were driven back to the Ozugerts. Their losses amounted to 2 thousand people. Gassan Pasha himself was among those killed, who promised his soldiers to have a hearty supper in Kutaisi in the evening. Russian damage - 600 people. The defeated units of the Gassan Pasha detachment retreated to the Ozugerts, where a large corps of Selim Pasha (34 thousand people) was concentrated. Meanwhile, Andronnikov gathered his forces into a fist in the Batumi direction (10 thousand people). Not allowing Selim Pasha to go on the offensive, the commander of the Akhaltsikhe detachment himself attacked the Turks on the Chorokh River and inflicted a severe defeat on them. Selim Pasha's corps retreated, losing 4 thousand people. Russian damage amounted to 1.5 thousand people. The victories at Nigoeti and Chorokh secured the right flank of the Russian troops in Transcaucasia.

Fight at the Chingil Pass (1854). Unable to break into Russian territory in the area of ​​the Black Sea coast, the Turkish command launched an offensive in the Erivan direction. In July, a 16,000-strong Turkish corps moved from Bayazet to Erivan (now Yerevan). The commander of the Erivan detachment, Baron Wrangel, did not take up a defensive position, but himself stepped out to meet the advancing Turks. In the scorching July heat, the Russians reached the Chingilsky pass in a forced march. On July 17, 1854, in a meeting battle, they inflicted a severe defeat on the Bayazet corps. The damage of the Russians in this case amounted to 405 people. The Turks lost over 2 thousand people. Wrangel organized an energetic pursuit of the defeated Turkish units and on July 19 captured their base - Bayazet. Most of the Turkish corps fled. Its remnants (2 thousand people) retreated in disorder to Van. The victory at the Chingil Pass secured and strengthened the left flank of the Russian troops in the Transcaucasus.

Battle of Kyuryuk-dak (1854). Finally, a battle took place on the central sector of the Russian front. On July 24, 1854, Bebutov's detachment (18 thousand people) fought the main Turkish army under the command of Mustafa Zarif Pasha (60 thousand people). Hoping for numerical superiority, the Turks left their fortified positions at Hadji Vali and attacked Bebutov's detachment. The stubborn battle lasted from 4 o'clock in the morning until noon. Bebutov, using the extended Turkish troops, managed to break them in parts (first on the right flank, and then in the center). His victory was facilitated by the skillful actions of the gunners and their sudden use of rocket weapons (rockets designed by Konstantinov). The losses of the Turks amounted to 10 thousand people, the Russians - 3 thousand people. After the defeat at Kyuruk-Dara, the Turkish army withdrew to Kars and stopped active operations in the Caucasian theater of operations. The Russians, on the other hand, received a favorable opportunity for an attack on Kars. So, in the campaign of 1854, the Russians repulsed the Turkish onslaught in all directions and continued to maintain the initiative. Turkey's hopes for the Caucasian highlanders did not come true either. Their main ally in the Eastern part of the Caucasus, Shamil, did not show much activity. In 1854, the only major success of the highlanders was the capture of the Georgian town of Tsinandali in the Alazani Valley in the summer. But this operation was not so much an attempt to establish cooperation with the Turkish troops as a traditional raid to capture booty (in particular, the princesses Chavchavadze and Orbeliani were captured, for whom the highlanders received a huge ransom). It is likely that Shamil was interested in independence from both Russia and Turkey.

Siege and capture of Kars (1855). At the beginning of 1855, General Nikolai Muravyov was appointed commander of the Russian forces in Transcaucasia, whose name is associated with the greatest success of the Russians in this theater of operations. He connected the Akhaltsikhe and Alexandropol detachments, creating a united corps of up to 40 thousand people. With these forces, Muraviev moved to Kars with the aim of capturing this main stronghold in eastern Turkey. Kars was defended by a 30,000-strong garrison led by the English General Williams. The siege of Kars began on August 1, 1855. In September, Omer Pasha's expeditionary corps (45 thousand people) arrived from the Crimea to Batum to help the Turkish troops in Transcaucasia. This forced Muravyov to act more actively against Kars. On September 17, the fortress was stormed. But he was not successful. Of the 13 thousand people who went on the attack, the Russians lost half and were forced to withdraw. The damage of the Turks amounted to 1.4 thousand people. This failure did not affect Muravyov's determination to continue the siege. Especially since Omer Pasha started an operation in Mingrelia in October. He occupied Sukhum, and then got involved in heavy battles with the troops (mostly militia) of General Bagration of Mukhransky (19 thousand people), who detained the Turks at the turn of the Inguri River, and then stopped them on the Tskheniskali River. By the end of October, snow began to fall. He closed the mountain passes, dispelling the hopes of the garrison for the arrival of reinforcements. At the same time, Muraviev continued the siege. Unable to withstand the hardships and without waiting for outside help, the Kars garrison decided not to experience the horrors of winter sitting and capitulated on November 16, 1855. The capture of Kars was a major victory for the Russian troops. This last significant operation of the Crimean War increased Russia's chances of concluding a more honorable peace. For the capture of the fortress, Muravyov was granted the title of Count of Karsky.

The fighting also unfolded in the Baltic, White and Barents Seas. In the Baltic Sea, the Allies planned to capture the most important Russian naval bases. In the summer of 1854, an Anglo-French squadron with a landing force under the command of Vice Admirals Napier and Parseval-Duchene (65 ships, most of them steam) blocked the Baltic Fleet (44 ships) in Sveaborg and Kronstadt. The Allies did not dare to attack these bases, since the approach to them was protected by minefields designed by Academician Jacobi, which were first used in combat. Thus, the technical superiority of the Allies in the Crimean War was by no means total. In a number of cases, the Russians were able to effectively oppose them with advanced military equipment (bomb cannons, Konstantinov rockets, Jacobi mines, etc.). Fearing mines at Kronstadt and Sveaborg, the Allies tried to take over other Russian naval bases in the Baltic. The landings in Ekenes, Gangut, Gamlakarleby and Abo failed. The only success of the Allies was the capture of the small fortress of Bomarzund on the Åland Islands. At the end of July, an 11,000-strong Anglo-French landing force landed on the Åland Islands and blockaded Bomarzund. It was defended by a 2,000-strong garrison, which surrendered on August 4, 1854 after a 6-day bombardment that destroyed the fortifications. In the autumn of 1854, the Anglo-French squadron, having not achieved their goals, left the Baltic Sea. "Never before have the actions of such a huge armada with such powerful forces and means ended in such a ridiculous result," the London Times wrote about this. In the summer of 1855, the Anglo-French fleet under the command of Admirals Dundas and Pino limited himself to the blockade of the coast, shelling Sveaborg and other cities.

On the White Sea, several English ships tried to capture the Solovetsky Monastery, which was defended by monks and a small detachment with 10 guns. The Solovki defenders responded with a decisive refusal to the offer to surrender. Then the naval artillery began shelling the monastery. The monastery gates were knocked out with the first shot. But an attempt to land troops was repulsed by the fire of fortress artillery. Fearing losses, the British paratroopers returned to the ships. After shooting for two more days, the British ships set off for Arkhangelsk. But the attack on him was also repulsed by the fire of Russian guns. Then the British sailed to the Barents Sea. Linking up with French ships there, they mercilessly bombarded the defenseless fishing village of Kola with incendiary cannonballs, destroying 110 of the 120 houses there. On this, the actions of the British and French in the White and Barents Seas ended.

Pacific Theater of Operations (1854-1856)

Of particular note is the first baptism of fire of Russia in the Pacific Ocean, where the Russians inflicted a painful defeat on the enemy with small forces and adequately defended the Far Eastern borders of their homeland. The garrison of Petropavlovsk (now the city of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky) led by the military governor Vasily Stepanovich Zavoiko (over 1 thousand people) distinguished themselves here. He had seven batteries with 67 guns, as well as the Aurora and Dvina ships. On August 18, 1854, an Anglo-French squadron approached Petropavlovsk (7 ships with 212 guns and 2.6 thousand crew and troops) under the command of Rear Admirals Price and Fevrier de Pointe. The Allies sought to capture this main stronghold of Russia on Far East and profit here from the property of the Russian-American Company. Despite the obvious inequality of forces, primarily in artillery, Zavoiko decided to defend himself to the last extreme. The ships "Aurora" and "Dvina", turned by the defenders of the city into floating batteries, blocked the entrance to the Peter and Paul harbor. On August 20, the allies, having a triple superiority in guns, suppressed one coastal battery with fire and landed a landing force (600 people) on the shore. But the surviving Russian gunners continued to shoot back on a broken battery and detained the attackers. The gunners were supported by gun fire from the Aurora, and soon a detachment of 230 people arrived in time for the battlefield, which, with a bold counterattack, dropped troops into the sea. For 6 hours, the allied squadron fired along the coast, trying to suppress the remaining Russian batteries, but itself received heavy damage in an artillery duel and was forced to move away from the coast. After 4 days, the Allies landed a new landing (970 people). captured the heights dominating the city, but its further advance was stopped by a counterattack by the defenders of Petropavlovsk. 360 Russian soldiers, scattered in a chain, attacked the paratroopers and grappled with them hand-to-hand. Unable to withstand the decisive onslaught, the allies fled to their ships. Their losses amounted to 450 people. The Russians lost 96 people. On August 27, the Anglo-French squadron left the Petropavlovsk area. In April 1855, Zavoiko set out with his small flotilla from Petropavlovsk to defend the mouth of the Amur and won a decisive victory over the superior British squadron in De Castries Bay. Its commander, Admiral Price, shot himself in desperation. "All the waters of the Pacific Ocean are not enough to wash away the shame of the British flag!" One of the English historians wrote about this. Having checked the fortress of the Far Eastern borders of Russia, the allies stopped active hostilities in this region. The heroic defense of Petropavlovsk and De Kastri Bay became the first bright page in the annals of the Russian armed forces in the Pacific.

Parisian world

By winter, the fighting on all fronts subsided. Thanks to the steadfastness and courage of the Russian soldiers, the offensive momentum of the coalition fizzled out. The Allies failed to oust Russia from the shores of the Black Sea and the Pacific Ocean. "We," wrote the London Times, "have found a resistance that surpasses everything hitherto known in history." But Russia could not defeat the powerful coalition alone. She did not have sufficient military-industrial potential for a protracted war. The production of gunpowder and lead did not even half satisfy the needs of the army. The stocks of weapons (guns, rifles) accumulated in the arsenals were also coming to an end. The weapons of the allies were superior to the Russian ones, which led to huge losses in the Russian army. The lack of a railway network did not allow for the mobile transfer of troops. The advantage of the steam fleet over the sailing fleet made it possible for the French and British to dominate the sea. In this war, 153 thousand Russian soldiers died (of which the number of those killed and died from wounds was 51 thousand people, the rest died from diseases). Allies (French, British, Sardinians, Turks) died about the same number. Almost the same percentage of their losses fell on diseases (primarily cholera). The Crimean War was the bloodiest clash of the 19th century after 1815. So the consent of the allies to the negotiations was to a large extent explained by the heavy losses. PARIS WORLD (03/18/1856). At the end of 1855, Austria demanded that St. Petersburg conclude a truce on the terms of the allies, threatening war otherwise. Sweden also joined the union of England and France. The entry into the war of these countries could cause an attack on Poland and Finland, which threatened Russia with more serious complications. All this prompted Alexander II to peace negotiations, which took place in Paris, where representatives of seven powers (Russia, France, Austria, England, Prussia, Sardinia and Turkey) gathered. The main terms of the agreement were as follows: navigation on the Black Sea and the Danube is open to all merchant ships; the entrance to the Black Sea, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles is closed to warships, with the exception of those light warships that each power maintains at the mouth of the Danube to ensure free navigation on it. Russia and Turkey, by mutual agreement, maintain an equal number of ships on the Black Sea.

According to the Treaty of Paris (1856), Sevastopol was returned to Russia in exchange for Kars, and the lands at the mouth of the Danube were transferred to the Moldavian principality. Russia was forbidden to have a military fleet on the Black Sea. Russia also promised not to strengthen the Aland Islands. Christians in Turkey are compared in rights with Muslims, and the Danubian principalities come under the general protectorate of Europe. The peace of Paris, although not beneficial for Russia, was nevertheless honorable for her in view of such numerous and powerful opponents. However, its disadvantageous side - the limitation of Russian naval forces on the Black Sea - was eliminated during the life of Alexander II by a statement on October 19, 1870.

Results of the Crimean War and reforms in the army

The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War opened the era of the Anglo-French redistribution of the world. Having knocked the Russian Empire out of world politics and secured their rear in Europe, the Western powers actively used the gained advantage to achieve world domination. The path to the success of England and France in Hong Kong or Senegal lay through the destroyed bastions of Sevastopol. Soon after the Crimean War, England and France attacked China. Having achieved a more impressive victory over him, they turned this country into a semi-colony. By 1914, the countries occupied or controlled by them accounted for 2/3 of the territory of the globe. The war made it clear to the Russian government that economic backwardness leads to political and military vulnerability. Further lagging behind Europe threatened even more serious consequences. Under Alexander II, the reform of the country begins. The military reform of the 1960s and 1970s occupied an important place in the system of transformations. It is associated with the name of the Minister of War Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin. This was the largest military reform since the time of Peter, which led to fundamental changes in the armed forces. She touched different areas: organization and staffing of the army, its management and armament, training of officers, training of troops, etc. In 1862-1864. reorganization of the local military administration was carried out. Its essence boiled down to the weakening of excessive centralism in the management of the armed forces, in which military formations were directly subordinate to the center. For decentralization, a military district control system was introduced.

The territory of the country was divided into 15 military districts with their commanders. Their authority extended to all the troops and military establishments of the district. Another important direction of the reform was the change in the system of officer training. Instead of cadet corps military gymnasiums (with a 7-year term of study) and military schools (with a 2-year term of study) were created. Military gymnasiums were secondary educational establishments, close in program to real gymnasiums. Young men with a secondary education were admitted to military schools (as a rule, these were graduates of military gymnasiums). Junker schools were also created. For admission to them, it was required to have a general education in the amount of four classes. After the reform, all persons promoted to officers not from schools were required to take exams according to the program of cadet schools.

All this raised the educational level of Russian officers. The mass rearmament of the army begins. There is a transition from smoothbore guns to rifled rifles.

There is also a re-equipment of field artillery with rifled guns loaded from the breech. The creation of steel tools begins. Russian scientists A.V. Gadolin, N.V. Maievsky, V.S. Baranovsky achieved great success in artillery. The sailing fleet is being replaced by steam. The creation of armored ships begins. The country is actively building railways, including strategic ones. The improvement of technology required major changes in the training of troops. The tactics of loose formation, rifle chains are gaining an increasing advantage over close columns. This required an increase in the independence and maneuverability of the infantryman on the battlefield. The importance of preparing a fighter for individual actions in battle is increasing. The role of sapper and trench work, which involves the ability to dig in and build shelters to protect against enemy fire, is increasing. To train troops in the methods of conducting modern warfare, a number of new regulations, instructions, teaching aids. The crowning achievement of the military reform was the transition in 1874 to universal conscription. Prior to that, there was a recruiting system. When it was introduced by Peter I, military duty covered all segments of the population (excluding officials and the clergy). But from the second half of the XVIII century. it was limited only to taxable estates. Gradually and among them began to officially practice paying off the army of rich people. In addition to social injustice, this system also suffered from material costs. The maintenance of a huge professional army (its number has grown 5 times since the time of Peter) was expensive and not always effective. In peacetime, it outnumbered the troops of the European powers. But during the war, the Russian army did not have trained reserves. This problem was clearly manifested in the Crimean campaign, when it was additionally possible to recruit mostly illiterate militias. Now young people who have reached the age of 21 were required to appear at the recruiting station. The government calculated the required number of recruits and, in accordance with it, determined the number of places that the recruits pulled out by lot. The rest were enrolled in the militia. There were conscription benefits. So, the only sons or breadwinners of the family were exempted from the army. Representatives of the peoples of the North, Central Asia, some peoples of the Caucasus and Siberia were not called. The service life was reduced to 6 years, another 9 years of service remained in the reserve and was subject to conscription in case of war. As a result, the country received a significant number of trained reserves. Military service lost class restrictions and became a nationwide affair.

"From Ancient Russia to the Russian Empire". Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.

The reasons for the war were in the contradictions between the European powers in the Middle East, in the struggle of European states for influence on the weakening and gripped by the national liberation movement of the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I said that the inheritance of Turkey can and should be divided. In the upcoming conflict, the Russian emperor counted on the neutrality of Great Britain, which he promised after the defeat of Turkey new territorial acquisitions of Crete and Egypt, as well as on the support of Austria, as a gratitude for Russia's participation in the suppression of the Hungarian revolution. However, Nicholas's calculations turned out to be wrong: England herself pushed Turkey to war, thus seeking to weaken Russia's position. Austria also did not want to strengthen Russia in the Balkans.

The reason for the war was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy in Palestine about who would be the guardian of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and the temple in Bethlehem. At the same time, it was not about access to holy places, since all pilgrims used them on an equal footing. The dispute over the Holy Places cannot be called a far-fetched pretext for unleashing a war.

STAGES

During the Crimean War, two stages are distinguished:

I stage of the war: November 1853 - April 1854 Turkey was Russia's enemy, and hostilities took place on the Danube and Caucasian fronts. In 1853, Russian troops entered the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia, and hostilities on land were sluggish. In the Caucasus, the Turks were defeated near Kars.

II stage of the war: April 1854 - February 1856 Concerned that Russia would completely defeat Turkey, England and France, represented by Austria, delivered an ultimatum to Russia. They demanded that Russia refuse to patronize the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I could not accept such conditions. Turkey, France, England and Sardinia united against Russia.

RESULTS

The results of the war:

On February 13 (25), 1856, the Paris Congress began, and on March 18 (30) a peace treaty was signed.

Russia returned the city of Kars with a fortress to the Ottomans, receiving in exchange Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities captured from it.

The Black Sea was declared neutral (that is, open to commercial and closed to military ships in peacetime), with the prohibition of Russia and the Ottoman Empire to have navies and arsenals there.

Navigation along the Danube was declared free, for which the Russian borders were moved away from the river and part of Russian Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube was annexed to Moldavia.

Russia was deprived of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia, granted to it by the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhysky peace of 1774, and the exclusive patronage of Russia over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire.

Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Aland Islands.

During the war, the members of the anti-Russian coalition failed to achieve all their goals, but managed to prevent the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and deprive it of the Black Sea Fleet.

100 Great Wars Sokolov Boris Vadimovich

CRIMEAN WAR (1853–1856)

CRIMEAN WAR

(1853–1856)

The war launched by Russia against Turkey for dominance in the Black Sea straits and the Balkan Peninsula and turned into a war against a coalition of England, France, the Ottoman Empire and Piedmont.

The reason for the war was a dispute over the keys to holy places in Palestine between Catholics and Orthodox. The Sultan handed over the keys to the Bethlehem Church from the Orthodox Greeks to the Catholics, whose interests were protected by the Emperor of France, Napoleon III. Russian Emperor Nicholas I demanded that Turkey recognize him as the patron of all Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire. On June 26, 1853, he announced the entry of Russian troops into the Danubian Principalities, declaring that he would withdraw them from there only after the Russian demands were satisfied by the Turks.

On July 14, Turkey addressed a note of protest against Russia's actions to other great powers and received assurances of support from them. On October 16, Turkey declared war on Russia, and on November 9, an imperial manifesto followed on Russia declaring war on Turkey.

In autumn, there were small skirmishes on the Danube with varying success. In the Caucasus, the Turkish army of Abdi Pasha tried to occupy Akhaltsy, but on December 1 was defeated by the detachment of Prince Bebutov at Bash-Kodik-Lyar.

At sea, initially success also accompanied Russia. In mid-November 1853, the Turkish squadron under the command of Admiral Osman Pasha, consisting of 7 frigates, 3 corvettes, 2 frigate steamers, 2 brigs and 2 transport ships with 472 guns, en route to the Sukhumi area (Sukhum-Kale) and Poti for landing , was forced to take refuge in the Sinop Bay off the coast of Asia Minor due to a strong storm. This became known to the commander of the Russian Black Sea Fleet, Admiral P.S. Nakhimov, and he led the ships to Sinop. Because of the storm, several Russian ships were damaged and were forced to return to Sevastopol.

By November 28, the entire fleet of Nakhimov was concentrated at the Sinop Bay. It consisted of 6 battleships and 2 frigates, surpassing the enemy in the number of guns by almost one and a half times. The Russian artillery was also superior to the Turkish in quality, as it had the latest bomb cannons. Russian gunners knew how to shoot much better than Turkish ones, and the sailors were faster and more dexterous with sailing equipment.

Nakhimov decided to attack the enemy fleet in the bay and shoot him with the utmost short distance in 1.5-2 cables. The Russian admiral left two frigates at the entrance to the Sinop raid. They should have intercepted Turkish ships that would have tried to flee.

At half past 10 am on November 30, the Black Sea Fleet moved towards Sinop in two columns. The right one was headed by Nakhimov on the ship "Empress Maria", the left one - by the junior flagship Rear Admiral F.M. Novosilsky on the ship "Paris". At half past one in the afternoon, Turkish ships and coastal batteries opened fire on a suitable Russian squadron. She opened fire, only approaching an extremely small distance.

After half an hour of battle, the Turkish flagship "Avni-Allah" was seriously damaged by the bombing guns of the "Empress Mary" and ran aground. Then Nakhimov's ship set fire to the enemy frigate Fazly-Allah. Meanwhile, "Paris" sank two enemy ships. In three hours, the Russian squadron destroyed 15 Turkish ships and suppressed all coastal batteries. Only the Taif steamer, commanded by the English captain A. Slade, using the advantage in speed, was able to break out of the Sinop Bay and escape the pursuit of Russian sailing frigates.

The losses of the Turks killed and wounded amounted to about 3 thousand people, and 200 sailors, led by Osman Pasha, were taken prisoner. Nakhimov's squadron had no losses in the ships, although several of them were seriously damaged. In the battle, 37 Russian sailors and officers were killed and 233 were wounded. Thanks to the victory at Sinop, the Turkish landing on the Caucasian coast was thwarted.

The battle of Sinop was the last major battle between sailing ships and the last significant battle won by the Russian fleet. In the next century and a half, he won no more victories of this magnitude.

In December 1853, the British and French governments, fearing the defeat of Turkey and the establishment of Russian control over the straits, brought their warships into the Black Sea. In March 1854, England, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia declared war on Russia. At this time, Russian troops besieged Silistria, however, obeying the ultimatum of Austria, which demanded that Russia clear the Danubian principalities, on July 26 they lifted the siege, and in early September they withdrew beyond the Prut. In the Caucasus, Russian troops in July - August defeated two Turkish armies, but this did not affect the overall course of the war.

The Allies planned to land the main landing in the Crimea in order to deprive the Russian Black Sea Fleet of its bases. Attacks on the ports of the Baltic and White Seas and the Pacific Ocean were also envisaged. The Anglo-French fleet concentrated in the Varna region. It consisted of 34 battleships and 55 frigates, including 54 steam ones, and 300 transport ships, on which there was an expeditionary force of 61,000 soldiers and officers. The Russian Black Sea Fleet could oppose the Allies with 14 sailing battleships, 11 sailing and 11 steam frigates. The Russian army of 40 thousand people was stationed in the Crimea.

In September 1854, the Allies landed troops in Evpatoria. The Russian army under the command of Admiral Prince A.S. Menshikov on the Alma River tried to block the path of the Anglo-French-Turkish troops deep into the Crimea. Menshikov had 35,000 soldiers and 84 guns, while the Allies had 59,000 soldiers (30,000 French, 22,000 British, and 7,000 Turkish) and 206 guns.

Russian troops occupied strong position. Its center near the village of Burliuk was crossed by a beam along which the main Evpatoria road ran. From the high left bank of the Alma, the plain on the right bank was clearly visible, only near the river itself covered with orchards and vineyards. The right flank and the center of the Russian troops were commanded by General Prince M.D. Gorchakov, and on the left flank - General Kiryakov.

The allied troops were about to attack the Russians from the front, and bypassing their left flank they threw the French infantry division of General Bosquet. At 9 am on September 20, 2 columns of French and Turkish troops occupied the village of Ulukul and the dominant height, but were stopped by Russian reserves and could not hit the rear of the Alm position. In the center, the British, French and Turks, despite heavy losses, were able to force the Alma. They were counterattacked by the Borodino, Kazan and Vladimir regiments, led by Generals Gorchakov and Kvitsinsky. But crossfire from land and sea forced the Russian infantry to retreat. Due to heavy losses and the numerical superiority of the enemy, Menshikov retreated to Sevastopol under the cover of darkness. The losses of the Russian troops amounted to 5700 people killed and wounded, the losses of the allies - 4300 people.

The battle of Alma was one of the first to use the loose formation of infantry on a massive scale. The superiority of the allies in armament also affected here. Almost the entire English army and up to a third of the French were armed with new rifled guns, which surpassed the Russian smoothbore guns in rate of fire and range.

Pursuing Menshikov's army, the Anglo-French troops occupied Balaklava on September 26, and on September 29 - the Kamyshovaya Bay area near Sevastopol itself. However, the allies were afraid to attack this naval fortress on the move, at that moment almost defenseless from land. The commander of the Black Sea Fleet, Admiral Nakhimov, became the military governor of Sevastopol and, together with the chief of staff of the fleet, Admiral V.A. Kornilov began to hastily prepare the defense of the city from land. 5 sailing ships and 2 frigates were sunk at the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay in order to prevent the enemy fleet from entering there. The remaining ships were to provide artillery support to the troops fighting on land.

The land garrison of the city, which also included sailors from sunken ships, totaled 22.5 thousand people. The main forces of the Russian army under the command of Menshikov retreated to Bakhchisaray.

The first allied bombardment of Sevastopol from land and sea took place on October 17, 1854. Russian ships and batteries responded to fire and damaged several enemy ships. The Anglo-French artillery failed then to disable the Russian coastal batteries. It turned out that naval artillery was not very effective for firing at ground targets. However, the defenders of the city during the bombardment suffered considerable losses. One of the leaders of the city's defense, Admiral Kornilov, was killed.

On October 25, the Russian army advanced from Bakhchisaray to Balaklava and attacked the British troops, but could not break through to Sevastopol. However, this offensive forced the allies to postpone the assault on Sevastopol. On November 6, Menshikov again tried to unblock the city, but again he could not overcome the Anglo-French defenses after the Russians lost 10 thousand in the battle of Inkerman, and the allies lost 12 thousand people killed and wounded.

By the end of 1854, the Allies had concentrated more than 100 thousand soldiers and about 500 guns near Sevastopol. They were intensively bombarding the city fortifications. The British and French launched attacks of local importance in order to capture individual positions, the defenders of the city responded with sorties to the rear of the besiegers. In February 1855, the allied forces near Sevastopol increased to 120 thousand people, and preparations began for a general assault. The main blow was supposed to be inflicted on the Malakhov Kurgan, which dominated Sevastopol. The defenders of the city, in turn, especially strongly fortified the approaches to this height, perfectly understanding its strategic importance. In the South Bay, 3 battleships and 2 frigates were additionally flooded, which closed the allied fleet's access to the roadstead. To divert forces from Sevastopol, the detachment of General S.A. Khruleva attacked Evpatoria on February 17, but was repulsed with heavy losses. This failure led to the resignation of Menshikov, who was replaced as commander in chief by General Gorchakov. But the new commander failed to reverse the unfavorable for the Russian side of the course of events in the Crimea.

8 period from April 9 to June 18, Sevastopol was subjected to four intense bombardments. After that, 44 thousand soldiers of the allied forces stormed the Ship side. They were opposed by 20 thousand Russian soldiers and sailors. Heavy fighting continued for several days, but this time the Anglo-French troops failed to break through. However, continuous shelling continued to deplete the forces of the besieged.

On July 10, 1855, Nakhimov was mortally wounded. His burial was described in his diary by lieutenant Ya.P. Kobylyansky: “The funeral of Nakhimov ... was solemn; the enemy, in whose mind they took place, saluting the deceased hero, kept a deep silence: not a single shot was fired at the main positions during the burial of the body to the ground.

On September 9, the general assault on Sevastopol began. 60 thousand allied troops, mostly French, attacked the fortress. They managed to take Malakhov Kurgan. Realizing the futility of further resistance, the commander-in-chief of the Russian army in the Crimea, General Gorchakov, gave the order to leave the southern side of Sevastopol, blowing up port facilities, fortifications, ammunition depots and flooding the surviving ships. On the evening of September 9, the defenders of the city crossed to the North side, blowing up the bridge behind them.

In the Caucasus, Russian weapons were successful, somewhat brightening up the bitterness of the Sevastopol defeat. On September 29, the army of General Muravyov stormed Kare, but, having lost 7 thousand people, was forced to retreat. However, on November 28, 1855, the garrison of the fortress, exhausted by hunger, capitulated.

After the fall of Sevastopol, the loss of the war for Russia became obvious. The new Emperor Alexander II agreed to peace negotiations. On March 30, 1856, peace was signed in Paris. Russia returned Kare, which had been occupied during the war, to Turkey and transferred South Bessarabia to it. The allies, in turn, left Sevastopol and other cities of the Crimea. Russia was forced to abandon patronage of the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire. It was forbidden to have a navy and bases on the Black Sea. A protectorate of all the great powers was established over Moldavia, Wallachia and Serbia. The Black Sea was declared closed to military vessels of all states, but open to international merchant shipping. Freedom of navigation on the Danube was also recognized.

During the Crimean War, France lost 10,240 people killed and 11,750 dead from wounds, England - 2755 and 1847, Turkey - 10,000 and 10,800, and Sardinia - 12 and 16 people. In total, the coalition troops suffered irretrievable losses of 47.5 thousand soldiers and officers. The losses of the Russian army in the killed amounted to about 30 thousand people, and those who died from wounds - about 16 thousand, which gives a total irretrievable combat loss for Russia of 46 thousand people. Mortality from diseases was much higher. During the Crimean War, 75,535 French people, 17,225 Englishmen, 24,500 Turks, and 2,166 Sardinians (Piedmontese) died of disease. Thus, the non-combat irretrievable losses of the coalition countries amounted to 119,426 people. In the Russian army, 88,755 Russians died of disease. In total, non-combat irretrievable losses in the Crimean War exceeded combat losses by 2.2 times.

The result of the Crimean War was the loss of Russia's last traces of European hegemony, acquired after the victory over Napoleon I. This hegemony gradually faded away by the end of the 20s due to economic weakness Russian Empire, caused by the preservation of serfdom, and the emerging military-technical backwardness of the country from other great powers. Only the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871 allowed Russia to eliminate the most difficult articles of the Paris Peace and restore its fleet on the Black Sea.