The real name of Catherine 2. Biography of Empress Catherine II the Great

The life of the Russian Empress Catherine the Great, which has attracted the attention of both ordinary people and creative personalities for more than two centuries, is surrounded by a large number of various myths. AiF.ru recalls the five most common legends about the most famous Russian mistress.

Myth one. “Catherine II gave birth to an heir to the throne not from Peter III”

One of the most persistent myths associated with the Russian Empress concerns who was the father of the heir to the throne, Pavel Petrovich. For Paul I, who ascended the throne, this topic remained painful until the very last days.

The reason for the stability of such rumors lies in the fact that Catherine II herself did not seek to refute them or somehow punish those who spread them.

The relationship between Catherine and her husband, the future Emperor Peter III, really did not differ in warmth. Marital relations in the early years were defective due to Peter's illness, which was subsequently overcome as a result of the operation.

Two years before the birth of Pavel, Catherine had her first favorite, Sergey Saltykov. Relations between him and Catherine ended after the future empress showed signs of pregnancy. Subsequently, Saltykov was sent abroad as a Russian envoy, and practically did not appear in Russia.

There seems to be a lot of grounds for the version of Saltykov's paternity, but they all do not look convincing against the background of an undoubted portrait resemblance between Peter III and Paul I. Contemporaries, guided not by rumors, but by facts, had no doubt that Pavel was the son of Peter Fedorovich.

Myth two. "Catherine II sold Alaska to America"

A persistent myth at the end of the 20th century was reinforced by the song of the Lyube group, after which the status of the “liquidator of Russian America” was finally established for the empress.

In reality, during the reign of Catherine the Great, Russian industrialists were just starting to develop Alaska. The first permanent Russian settlement was established on Kodiak Island in 1784.

The empress was really unenthusiastic about the projects for the development of Alaska submitted to her, but this was caused by who and how intended to develop it.

In 1780, the secretary of the College of Commerce Mikhail Chulkov submitted to the Prosecutor General of the Senate, Prince Vyazemsky, a project to create a company that was supposed to receive a 30-year monopoly on fishing and trade throughout the Pacific North. Catherine II, who was an opponent of monopolies, rejected the project. In 1788, a similar project, which provided for the transfer of the trade and fishing monopoly of monopoly rights to the extraction of furs in the newly discovered territories in the New World, was filed by industrialists Grigory Shelikhov And Ivan Golikov. The project was also rejected. Only after the death of Catherine II, the development of Alaska by a monopoly company was approved by Paul I.

As for the sale of Alaska, a deal with the United States was concluded in March 1867 at the initiative of the great-grandson of Catherine the Great, Emperor Alexander II.

Myth three. "Catherine II had hundreds of lovers"

Rumors about the incredible sexual adventures of the Russian Empress, which have been replicated for the third century, are greatly exaggerated. The list of her hobbies for her whole life contains a little more than 20 surnames - this, of course, is not typical for the Russian court of the pre-Catherine era, but for the mores of Europe at that time the situation was quite normal. With a small clarification - for male monarchs, not for women. But the thing is that there were not so many women who single-handedly ruled states at that time.

Until 1772, Catherine's love list was very short - in addition to her legal spouse Petr Fedorovich, it featured Sergey Saltykov, the future Polish king Stanislav August Poniatowski And Grigory Orlov, a relationship with which lasted about 12 years.

Apparently, the 43-year-old Ekaterina was further affected by the fear of fading her own beauty. In an effort to catch up with youth, she began to change favorites, who were getting younger, and the duration of their stay next to the empress was getting shorter.

The last of the favorites lasted for seven whole years. In 1789, 60-year-old Catherine approached a 22-year-old horse guard Platon Zubov. The aging woman was very attached to Zubov, whose only talent was pulling money from the state treasury. But this sad story definitely has nothing to do with the mythical "hundreds of lovers."

Myth four. “Catherine II spent most of her time at feasts and balls”

The childhood of little Fike was really far from the classical ideas of how a princess should live. The girl even had to learn to darn her own stockings. It would not be surprising if, having arrived in Russia, Catherine would rush to compensate for her “difficult childhood” with a passion for luxury and entertainment.

But in fact, having ascended the throne, Catherine II lived in the harsh rhythm of the head of state. She got up at 5 am, and only in later years this time shifted to 7 am. Immediately after breakfast, the reception of officials began, and the schedule of their reports was clearly scheduled by hours and days of the week, and this order did not change for years. The working day of the empress lasted up to four hours, after which it was time for rest. At 22 o'clock Ekaterina went to bed, because in the morning she had to get up again for work.

Officials who visited the empress on official business outside of solemn and official events saw her in simple dresses without any jewelry - Catherine believed that she did not need to dazzle her subjects on weekdays with her appearance.

Myth five. "Catherine II was killed by a Polish dwarf avenger"

The death of the Empress was also surrounded by many myths. A year before her death, Catherine II was one of the initiators of the Third Partition of Poland, after which the country ceased to exist as an independent state. The Polish throne, on which the former lover of the Empress, King Stanislav August Poniatowski, had previously sat, was sent to St. Petersburg, where, on the orders of the Empress, they allegedly made a “stool” for her dressing room from it.

Of course, the Polish patriots could not endure such a humiliation of their own country and the ancient throne of the Piast dynasty.

The myth says that a certain Pole-dwarf allegedly managed to sneak into Catherine's chambers, ambushed her in the restroom, stabbed her with a dagger and safely disappeared. The courtiers who discovered the Empress were unable to help her, and she soon died.

The only truth in this story is that Catherine was actually found in the lavatory. On the morning of November 16, 1796, the 67-year-old Empress, as usual, got out of bed, drank coffee and went to the dressing room, where she lingered for too long. The valet on duty dared to look there, and found Ekaterina lying on the floor. Her eyes were closed, her complexion was purple, and wheezing came from her throat. The Empress was transferred to the bedchamber. During the fall, Catherine dislocated her leg, her body became so heavy that the servants did not have enough strength to lift him onto the bed. Therefore, a mattress was laid on the floor and the empress laid on it.

All signs indicated that Catherine had an apoplexy - this term then meant a stroke and cerebral hemorrhage. She did not regain consciousness, and the court physicians who assisted her had no doubt that the Empress had only a few hours to live.

According to doctors, death should have occurred at about three o'clock in the afternoon on November 17. The strong body of Catherine made its own adjustments here too - the great empress passed away at 9:45 pm on November 17, 1796.

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Years of government: 1762-1796

1. For the first time since Peter I reformed the public administration system. Culturally Russia finally became one of the great European powers. Catherine patronized various fields of art: under her rule, the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg.

2. Carried out administrative reform, which determined the territorial structure of the country up to before 1917. Formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities.

3. Increased the territory of the state by annexing the southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region and the eastern part of the Commonwealth. In terms of population, Russia became the largest European country: it accounted for 20% of the population of Europe

4. Brought Russia to the first place in the world in iron smelting. By the end of the 18th century there were 1200 large enterprises(in 1767 there were only 663).

5. Strengthened the role of Russia in the global economy: the volume of exports increased from 13.9 million rubles in 1760 to 39.6 million rubles in 1790. IN large quantities sailing cloth, cast iron, iron, and also bread were exported. The volume of timber exports increased fivefold.

6. Under Catherine II of Russia Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. Empress paid special attention to the development women's education: in 1764, the first educational institutions for girls in Russia were opened - the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens.

7. Organized new credit institutions - a state bank and a loan office, and also expanded the range of banking operations (since 1770, banks began to accept deposits for safekeeping) and for the first time launched the issuance of paper money - banknotes.

8. Gave the character of state measures to the fight against epidemics. Having introduced compulsory smallpox vaccination, she decided to set a personal example for her subjects: in 1768, the empress herself was vaccinated against smallpox.

9. She supported Buddhism, in 1764 establishing the post of Khambo Lama - the head of the Buddhists of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. The Buryat lamas recognized Catherine II as the incarnation of the main goddess of White Tara and since then swore allegiance to all Russian rulers.

10 Belonged to those few monarchs who intensively communicated with subjects by drawing up manifestos, instructions and laws. She had the talent of a writer, leaving behind a large collection of works: notes, translations, fables, fairy tales, comedies and essays.

Catherine the Great is one of the most extraordinary women in world history. Her life is a rare example of self-education through deep education and strict discipline.

The epithet "Great" Empress rightfully deserved: she, a German and a foreigner, the Russian people called her "native mother." And historians almost unanimously decided that if Peter I wanted to instill everything German in Russia, then the German Catherine dreamed of reviving precisely Russian traditions. And in many ways it has been very successful.

The long reign of Catherine is the only period of transformation in Russian history, about which one cannot say “they cut down the forest, the chips fly”. The population of the country doubled, while there was practically no censorship, torture was prohibited, elected bodies of estate self-government were created ... The “firm hand”, which the Russian people allegedly needed so much, was completely useless this time.

Princess Sofia

The future Empress Catherine II Alekseevna, nee Sophia Frederick Augusta, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, was born on April 21, 1729 in the unknown Stettin (Prussia). Father - unremarkable Prince Christian-August - thanks to devotion to the Prussian king, he made a good career: regiment commander, commandant of Stettin, governor. Constantly employed in the service, he became for Sofia an example of conscientious service in the public arena.

Sophia was educated at home: she studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, and theology. Her independent character and perseverance were already evident in early childhood. In 1744, together with her mother, she was summoned to Russia by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna. Here, before that, a Lutheran, she was accepted into Orthodoxy under the name Catherine (this name, like the patronymic Alekseevna, was given to her in honor of Elizabeth's mother, Catherine I) and named the bride of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (future Emperor Peter III), with whom the princess married in 1745.

Mind Chamber

Catherine set herself the goal of winning the favor of the Empress, her husband and the Russian people. From the very beginning, her personal life was unsuccessful, but the Grand Duchess reasoned that she always liked the Russian crown more than her fiancé, and turned to reading works on history, jurisprudence and economics. She was absorbed in studying the works of French encyclopedists and already at that time intellectually outgrew everyone around her head.

Catherine really became a patriot of her new homeland: she scrupulously observed the rites Orthodox Church, tried to return the Russian national costume to the everyday life of the court, diligently studied the Russian language. She even studied at night and one day became dangerously ill from overwork. The Grand Duchess wrote: “Those who succeeded in Russia could be sure of success throughout Europe. Nowhere, as in Russia, are there such masters of noticing the weaknesses or shortcomings of a foreigner; you can be sure that nothing will be let him down.

Communication between the Grand Duke and the princess demonstrated the cardinal difference between their characters: the infantilism of Peter was opposed by the active, purposeful and ambitious nature of Catherine. She began to fear for her fate if her husband came to power and began to recruit supporters for herself at court. Catherine's ostentatious piety, prudence and sincere love for Russia contrasted sharply with Peter's behavior, which allowed her to gain authority both among high society and among the ordinary population of St. Petersburg.

Double grip

Having ascended the throne after the death of his mother, Emperor Peter III managed to turn the nobility against himself to such an extent during the six months of his reign that he himself opened the way to power for his wife. As soon as he ascended the throne, he concluded an unfavorable treaty with Prussia for Russia, announced the arrest of the property of the Russian Church and the abolition of monastic land ownership. Supporters of the coup accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia and complete inability to govern the state. A well-read, pious and benevolent wife looked favorably against his background.

When Catherine's relationship with her husband became hostile, the twenty-year-old Grand Duchess decided to "die or reign." Having carefully prepared a plot, she secretly arrived in St. Petersburg and was proclaimed autocratic empress in the barracks of the Izmailovsky regiment. Soldiers from other regiments joined the rebels, unquestioningly swearing allegiance to her. The news of Catherine's accession to the throne quickly spread throughout the city and was greeted with enthusiasm by the people of St. Petersburg. Over 14,000 people surrounded the palace, welcoming the new ruler.

The foreigner Catherine did not have any rights to power, but the “revolution” she committed was presented as a national liberation one. She correctly captured the critical moment in her husband's behavior - his contempt for the country and Orthodoxy. As a result, the grandson of Peter the Great was considered more German than the purebred German Catherine. And this is the result of her own efforts: in the eyes of society, she managed to change her national identity and received the right to “liberate the fatherland” from a foreign yoke.

M. V. Lomonosov about Catherine the Great: “A woman is on the throne - a chamber of mind.”

Upon learning of what had happened, Peter began to send proposals for negotiations, but they were all rejected. Catherine herself, at the head of the guards regiments, came out to meet him and on the way received a written abdication of the emperor from the throne. The long 34-year reign of Catherine II began with a solemn coronation in Moscow on September 22, 1762. In fact, she made a double capture: she took away power from her husband and did not transfer it to her natural heir - her son.

The era of Catherine the Great

Catherine came to the throne, having a certain political program based on the ideas of the Enlightenment and at the same time taking into account the peculiarities of the historical development of Russia. Already in the first years of her reign, the empress carried out a reform of the Senate, which made the work of this institution more efficient, and carried out the secularization of church lands, which replenished the state treasury. At the same time, a number of new educational institutions were founded, including the first educational institutions for women in Russia.

Catherine II was an excellent connoisseur of people, she skillfully selected her assistants, not being afraid of bright and talented personalities. That is why her time is marked by the appearance of a galaxy of prominent statesmen, generals, writers, artists and musicians. During this period, there were no noisy resignations, none of the nobles fell into disgrace - that is why the reign of Catherine is called the "golden age" of the Russian nobility. At the same time, the empress was very vain and valued her power more than anything else. For her sake, she was ready to make any compromises to the detriment of her convictions.

Catherine was distinguished by ostentatious piety, she considered herself the head and defender of the Russian Orthodox Church and skillfully used religion for political interests.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774 and the suppression of the uprising led by Yemelyan Pugachev, the empress independently developed key legislative acts. The most important of them were letters of grant to the nobility and cities. Their main significance is associated with the implementation of the strategic goal of Catherine's reforms - the creation in Russia of full-fledged estates of the Western European type.

Autocracy in the struggle for the future

Catherine was the first Russian monarch who saw in people individuals with their own opinions, character and emotions. She willingly acknowledged their right to make mistakes. From the distant skies of autocracy, Catherine saw a man below and turned him into a measure of her policy - an incredible somersault for Russian despotism. The philanthropy that she made fashionable would later become the main feature of high culture XIX century.

Catherine demanded naturalness from her subjects, and therefore easily, with a smile and self-irony, eliminated any hierarchy. It is known that she, being greedy for flattery, calmly accepted criticism. For example, her secretary of state and the first major Russian poet Derzhavin often argued with the empress on administrative issues. Once their discussion became so heated that the empress invited another of her secretaries: “Sit here, Vasily Stepanovich. This gentleman, it seems to me, wants to kill me. His sharpness had no consequences for Derzhavin.

One of his contemporaries figuratively described the essence of Catherine's reign as follows: "Peter the Great created people in Russia, but Catherine II put her soul into them"

I can’t even believe that two Russian-Turkish wars, the annexation of Crimea and the creation of Novorossia, the construction of the Black Sea Fleet, the three partitions of Poland, which brought Russia Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland, the war with Persia, the annexation of Georgia and the conquest of the future Azerbaijan , the suppression of the Pugachev rebellion, the war with Sweden, as well as numerous laws on which Catherine worked personally. In total, she issued 5798 acts, that is, an average of 12 laws per month. Her pedantry and diligence are described in detail by contemporaries.

Femininity revolution

Longer than Catherine II in Russian history, only Ivan III (43 years) and Ivan IV the Terrible (37 years) ruled. More than three decades of her reign is almost equal to half the Soviet period, and it is impossible to ignore this circumstance. Therefore, Catherine has always occupied a special place in the mass historical consciousness. However, the attitude towards her was ambiguous: German blood, the murder of her husband, numerous novels, Voltairianism - all this prevented selflessly admiring the empress.

Catherine was the first Russian monarch who saw in people individuals with their own opinions, character and emotions. From the distant skies of autocracy, she saw a man below and turned him into a measure of her policy - an incredible somersault for Russian despotism

Soviet historiography added class cuffs to Catherine: she became a "cruel serf-owner" and a despot. It got to the point that only Peter was allowed to remain the “Great”, she was emphatically called the “Second”. The undoubted victories of the empress, which brought Russia the Crimea, Novorossia, Poland and part of the Transcaucasus, were largely usurped by her military leaders, who, in the struggle for national interests, allegedly heroically overcame the intrigues of the court.

However, the fact that in the mass consciousness the personal life of the Empress overshadowed her political activity, testifies to the search for psychological compensation by descendants. After all, Catherine violated one of the oldest social hierarchies - the superiority of men over women. Her stunning successes, and especially the military ones, caused bewilderment, bordering on irritation, and needed some kind of “but”. Catherine gave cause for anger already by the fact that, contrary to the existing order, she herself chose men for herself. The empress refused to take for granted not only her nationality: she also tried to overcome the boundaries of her own gender, capturing typically male territory.

Manage passions

Throughout her life, Catherine learned to cope with her feelings and passionate temperament. Long life in a foreign land taught her not to succumb to circumstances, to always remain calm and consistent in her actions. Later, in her memoirs, the empress writes: “I came to Russia, a country completely unknown to me, not knowing what was ahead. Everyone looked at me with annoyance and even contempt: the daughter of a Prussian major general is going to be the Russian empress! Nevertheless, Catherine's main goal has always been the love of Russia, which, according to her own admission, "is not a country, but the Universe."

The ability to plan a day, not to deviate from what was planned, not to succumb to the blues or laziness, and at the same time to treat one's body rationally could be attributed to German upbringing. However, it seems that the reason for this behavior is deeper: Catherine subordinated her life to the most important task - to justify her own stay on the throne. Klyuchevsky noted that approval meant for Catherine the same thing as "applause for a debutant." The desire for glory was a way for the empress to actually prove to the world the goodness of her intentions. Such life motivation, of course, turned her into self-made.

The fact that in the mass consciousness the personal life of the empress obscured her political activity testifies to the search for psychological compensation by the descendants. After all, Catherine violated one of the oldest social hierarchies - the superiority of men over women.

For the sake of the goal - to rule the country - Catherine without regrets overcame a lot of givens: both her German origin, and confessional affiliation, and the notorious weakness of the female sex, and the monarchical principle of inheritance, which they dared to remind her of almost in person. In a word, Catherine decisively went beyond the limits of those constants in which her environment tried to put, and with all her successes she proved that "happiness is not as blind as it is imagined."

The craving for knowledge and the increase of experience did not kill the woman in her, in addition, until the last years, Catherine continued to behave actively and energetically. Even in her youth, the future empress wrote in her diary: "It is necessary to create yourself, your character." She brilliantly coped with this task, putting knowledge, determination and self-control at the basis of her life trajectory. She was often compared and continues to be compared with Peter I, but if he, in order to "Europeanize" the country, made violent changes to the Russian way of life, then she meekly finished what her idol had begun. One of his contemporaries figuratively described the essence of Catherine's reign as follows: "Peter the Great created people in Russia, but Catherine II put her soul into them."

text Marina Kvash
Source tmnWoman #2/4 | autumn | 2014

Empress Catherine II Alekseevna the Great

Catherine 2 (born May 2, 1729 - died November 17, 1796). The reign of Catherine II - from 1762 to 1796.

Origin

Princess Sophia-Frederick-Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born in 1729 in Stettin. Daughter of Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, a general in the Prussian service, and Johanna Elisabeth, Duchess of Holstein-Gottorp.

Arrival in Russia

She arrived in St. Petersburg on February 3, 1744 and converted to Orthodoxy on June 28, 1744. On August 21, 1745, she was married to her second cousin, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich.

By nature, she was gifted with a great mind, a strong character. On the contrary, her husband was a weak man, ill-bred. Not sharing his pleasures, Ekaterina Alekseevna devoted herself to reading and soon moved from lyrical novels to historical and philosophical books. Around her, an elected circle was formed, in which the greatest confidence was first enjoyed by Prince N. Saltykov, and then by Stanislav Poniatowski, later King of the Kingdom of Poland.

The relationship between the Grand Duchess and Empress Elizabeth Petrovna was not particularly cordial, which was mutual. When Ekaterina Alekseevna gave birth to her son Pavel, the empress took the child to her and rarely allowed her mother to see him.

Death of Elizabeth Petrovna

Elizaveta Petrovna died on December 25, 1761. After the accession to the throne of Emperor Peter 3, the situation of his wife became even worse. The palace coup on June 28, 1762 and the death of her husband elevated Catherine II to the Russian throne.

The harsh school of life and the natural mind made it possible for the new empress herself to get out of a rather difficult situation, and to withdraw Russia from it. The treasury was empty, the monopoly suppressed trade and industry; factory peasants and serfs were agitated by rumors of freedom, now and then renewed; peasants from the western border fled to Poland.

Catherine 2

Under these circumstances, Catherine 2 ascended the throne, the rights to which belonged to her son under the law of succession to the throne. But she understood that a young son on the throne would become a toy of various palace parties. The regency was a fragile business - the fate of Menshikov, Biron, Anna Leopoldovna was remembered by everyone.

Catherine's penetrating gaze was equally attentive to the phenomena of life, both in Russia and abroad. 2 months after her accession to the throne, having learned that the famous French "Encyclopedia" was condemned by the Parisian parliament for godlessness and its continuation was prohibited, the empress invited Voltaire and Diderot to publish this encyclopedia in Riga. This one offer swayed to her side the best minds which then gave direction to public opinion throughout Europe.

Catherine was crowned on September 22, 1762 in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin and she stayed in Moscow for autumn and winter. The following year, the Senate was reorganized, dividing it into six departments. 1764 - the Manifesto on the secularization of church possessions was announced, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Imperial Hermitage were founded, the first collection of which was 225 paintings received from the Berlin merchant I.E. Gotskovsky as a repayment of a debt to the Russian treasury.

Conspiracy

1764, summer - Lieutenant Mirovich decided to enthrone Ivan VI Antonovich, who was kept in the Shlisselburg fortress, the son of Anna Leopoldovna and Duke Anton-Ulrich of Brunswick-Bevern-Lunenburg. The plan failed - on July 5, Ivan Antonovich was shot dead by one of the guard soldiers during an attempt to free him; Mirovich was executed by a court verdict.

Domestic and foreign policy

1764 - Prince Vyazemsky, sent to pacify the peasants assigned to the factories, was ordered to investigate the issue of the benefits of free labor over the serf. The same question was put to the newly founded Economic Society. First of all, it was necessary to resolve the issue of the monastery peasants, which had taken on a particularly acute character even under Elizabeth Petrovna. At the beginning of her reign, Elizabeth returned the estates to monasteries and churches, but in 1757 she, along with the dignitaries surrounding her, came to the conclusion that it was necessary to transfer the management of church property to secular hands.

Peter 3 ordered the fulfillment of Elizabeth's plan and the transfer of management of church property to the college of economy. The inventory of the monastic property was carried out extremely rudely. Upon the accession of Catherine II to the throne, the bishops filed complaints with her and asked for the return of control to them. The empress, on the advice of Bestuzhev-Ryumin, satisfied their desire, canceled the collegium of economy, but did not abandon her intention, but only postponed its execution. She then ordered that the commission of 1757 resumed its studies. It was ordered to make new inventories of monastic and church property.

Knowing how the transition of Peter 3 to the side of Prussia irritated public opinion, the Empress ordered the Russian generals to remain neutral and this contributed to the end of the war.

The internal affairs of the state demanded special attention. What struck me the most was the lack of justice. The empress expressed herself energetically on this occasion: “Covetousness has increased to such an extent that there is hardly the smallest place in the government in which the court would go without infection of this ulcer; if someone is looking for a place, he pays; if someone defends himself from slander, he defends himself with money; if anyone slanders anyone, he backs up all his cunning intrigues with gifts.

The empress was especially amazed when she learned that within the Novgorod province they took money from the peasants for taking them to the oath of allegiance to the empress. This state of justice forced her to convene in 1766 a commission to issue the Code. She handed over to this commission her "Instruction", which the commission was to be guided by when drawing up the Code. "Instruction" was compiled on the basis of the ideas of Montesquieu and Beccaria.

Polish affairs, which arose Russian- Turkish war 1768–1774 and internal turmoil suspended Catherine's legislative activity until 1775. Polish affairs caused the partition and fall of Poland.

The Russian-Turkish war ended with the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhy peace, which was ratified in 1775. According to this peace, the Port recognized the independence of the Crimean and Budzhak Tatars; ceded Azov, Kerch, Yenikale and Kinburn to Russia; opened free passage for Russian ships from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean; granted forgiveness to Christians who took part in the war; allowed Russia's petition on Moldovan affairs.

During the Russo-Turkish War in 1771, plague raged in Moscow, causing the Plague Riot. This plague killed 130,000 people.
In the east of Russia, an even more dangerous revolt, known as the Pugachevshchina, broke out. January 1775 - Pugachev was executed in Moscow.

1775 - the legislative activity of Catherine 2 resumed, which, however, had not stopped before. So, in 1768, commercial and noble banks were abolished and the so-called assignation, or exchange, bank was established. In 1775, the existence of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, which was already on the verge of collapse, ceased to exist. In the same year, 1775, the transformation of the provincial government began. An institution for the administration of the provinces was published, which took 20 years to complete: in 1775 it began with the Tver province and ended in 1796 with the establishment of the Vilna province. Thus, the reform of the provincial administration, begun by Peter 1, was brought out of a chaotic state by Catherine 2 and completed.

1776 - the Empress ordered in the petitions the word "slave" to be replaced by the word "loyal subject".

By the end of the first Russian-Turkish war, he was especially important, striving for great deeds. Together with his colleague Bezborodko, he drew up a project known as the Greek one. The grandeur of this project - destroying the Ottoman Porte, restoring the Greek Empire, on the throne of which the Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich should be elevated, - Catherine liked.

Heraclius 2, king of Georgia, recognized the protectorate of Russia. 1785 - marked by two important legislative acts: "Charter to the nobility" and "City regulations". The statute on public schools on August 15, 1786 was implemented only on a small scale. Projects to establish universities in Pskov, Chernigov, Penza, and Yekaterinoslav have been postponed. 1783 - was founded Russian Academy to learn their native language. It was the beginning of the education of women. Orphanages were established, smallpox vaccination was introduced, and the Pallas expedition was equipped to study the remote outskirts.

Catherine 2 decided to explore the newly acquired Crimean region herself. Accompanied by the Austrian, English and French ambassadors, with a huge retinue in 1787, she set off on a journey. In Kaniv met the Empress Stanislav Poniatowski, King of Poland; near Keidan - the Austrian Emperor Joseph 2. He and Catherine 2 laid the first stone of the city of Yekaterinoslav, visited Kherson and examined the Black Sea Fleet that had just been created by Potemkin. During the journey, Joseph noticed the theatricality in the setting, saw how hastily they drove the people to the villages supposedly under construction; but in Kherson he saw the real thing - and gave justice to Potemkin.

The second Russian-Turkish war under Catherine 2 was waged in alliance with Joseph 2 in 1787-1791. A peace treaty was concluded in Iasi on December 29, 1791. For all the victories, Russia received only Ochakov and the steppe between the Bug and the Dnieper.

Along with this, the war with Sweden, declared by Gustav III on July 30, 1788, went on with varying happiness. It ended on August 3, 1790 with the Peace of Verel on the condition that the previously existing border was preserved.

During the second Russian-Turkish war, a coup took place in Poland: 1791, on May 3, a new Constitution was promulgated, which led to the second partition of Poland in 1793, and then to the third - in 1795. Under the second partition, Russia received the rest part of the Minsk province, Volyn and Podolia, on the third - the Grodno province and Courland.

Last years. Death

1796 - the last year of the reign of Catherine 2, Count Valerian Zubov, appointed commander-in-chief in the campaign against Persia, conquered Derbent and Baku; his successes were stopped by the death of the empress.

The last years of the reign of Catherine 2 were overshadowed by a reactionary direction. Then the French Revolution broke out, and with the Russian domestic reaction, the pan-European, Jesuit-oligarchic reaction entered into an alliance. Her agent and instrument was the last favorite of the Empress, Prince Platon Zubov, together with his brother Count Valerian. European reaction wanted to draw Russia into a struggle against revolutionary France, a struggle alien to the direct interests of Russia.

The empress spoke kind words to the representatives of the reaction and did not give a single soldier. Then the undermining under her throne intensified, accusations were renewed that she reigns illegally, occupying the throne belonging to her son Pavel Petrovich. There is reason to believe that in 1790 an attempt was being made to elevate Pavel Petrovich to the throne. This attempt was probably connected with the expulsion from St. Petersburg of Prince Frederick of Württemberg.

The domestic reaction at the same time accused the empress of allegedly excessive free-thinking. Catherine has grown old, her former courage and energy are almost gone. And under such circumstances, in 1790, Radishchev's book "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" appears with a project for the liberation of the peasants, as if written out from the articles of the "Instruction" of the Empress. The unfortunate Radishchev was exiled to Siberia. Perhaps this cruelty was the result of a fear that the exclusion from the "Instruction" of articles on the liberation of the peasants would be considered hypocrisy on the part of the empress.

1796 - Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress, who served so much for Russian enlightenment. The secret motive for this measure was Novikov's relationship with Pavel Petrovich. 1793 - Knyazhnin suffered cruelly for his tragedy "Vadim". 1795 - even Derzhavin was suspected of a revolutionary direction for transcribing the 81st psalm, entitled "To the Rulers and Judges." Thus ended the enlightenment reign of Catherine II, which raised the national spirit. Despite the reaction of recent years, the name of the enlightenment will remain with him in history. From this reign in Russia they began to realize the importance of humane ideas, they began to talk about the right of a person to think for the benefit of his own kind.

literary movement

Gifted with literary talent, receptive and sensitive to the phenomena of life around her, Catherine 2 took an active part in the literature of that era. The literary movement she initiated was devoted to the development of enlightenment ideas of the 18th century. Thoughts on education, briefly outlined in one of the chapters of the "Order", were subsequently developed in detail by the empress in the allegorical tales "About Tsarevich Chlor" (1781) and "About Tsarevich Fevey" (1782) and, mainly, in "Instructions to the Prince N. Saltykov”, given when he was appointed tutor of the Grand Dukes Alexander and Konstantin Pavlovich (1784).

The pedagogical ideas expressed in these works, the empress mainly borrowed from Montaigne and Locke; from the first she took a general view of the goals of education, the second she used in the development of particulars. Guided by Montaigne, the empress put forward the moral element in the first place in education - to sow humanity, justice, respect for the laws, indulgence towards people in the soul of a person. At the same time, she demanded that the mental and physical aspects of education should be properly developed.

Personally leading the upbringing of her grandchildren up to the age of seven, she compiled for them a whole educational library. For the Grand Dukes were written by their grandmother and "Notes on Russian history". In purely fictional writings, to which journal articles and dramatic works belong, Catherine II is much more original than in writings of a pedagogical and legislative nature. Pointing out actual contradictions to the ideals that existed in society, her comedies and satirical articles should have greatly contributed to the public consciousness, making more understandable the importance and expediency of the reforms undertaken by it.

Empress Catherine II the Great died on November 6, 1796 and was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.

Origin

Domestic politics

Imperial Council and transformation of the Senate

Laid commission

Provincial reform

Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich

Economic policy

Social politics

National politics

Legislation on estates

Religious policy

Domestic political problems

Sections of the Commonwealth

Relations with Sweden

Relations with other countries

Development of culture and art

Features of personal life

Catherine in art

In literature

In fine arts

monuments

Catherine on coins and banknotes

Interesting Facts

(Ekaterina Alekseevna; at birth Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, German Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg) - April 21 (May 2), 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6 (17), 1796, Winter Palace, St. Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia (1762-1796). The period of her reign is often considered the golden age of the Russian Empire.

Origin

Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dornenburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for the Dukes of Courland, but unsuccessfully , finished his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elizabeth, from the family of Holstein-Gottorp, was the great aunt of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf Friedrich (Adolf Fredrik) was the king of Sweden from 1751 (elected heir in 1743). The family tree of the mother of Catherine II goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and the founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

Childhood, education and upbringing

The family of the Duke of Zerbst was not rich, Catherine was educated at home. She studied German and French, dances, music, the basics of history, geography, theology. I was brought up in strictness. She grew up a frisky, inquisitive, playful and even troubled girl, she loved to play pranks and flaunt her courage in front of the boys, with whom she easily played on the streets of Stettin. Her parents did not burden her with their upbringing and did not particularly stand on ceremony when expressing their displeasure. Her mother called her as a child Fikkhen (Ger. Figchen- comes from the name Frederica, that is, "little Frederica").

In 1744, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, together with her mother, was invited to Russia for the subsequent marriage with the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Emperor Peter III and her second cousin. Immediately after her arrival in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, Russian traditions, as she sought to get to know Russia as fully as possible, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers are the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (Orthodoxy teacher), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (Russian language teacher) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher). She soon fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so severe that her mother offered to bring a Lutheran pastor. Sophia, however, refused and sent for Simon Todorsky. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. June 28 (July 9), 1744 Sophia Frederick Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name Catherine Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth's mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was betrothed to the future emperor.

Marriage with the heir to the Russian throne

On August 21 (September 1), 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Peter Fedorovich, who was 17 years old and who was her second cousin. For the first years of their life together, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them. Ekaterina will write about this later:

Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Bayle, a large number of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horseback riding, dancing and masquerades. The absence of marital relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of Catherine's lovers. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed dissatisfaction with the absence of children from the spouses.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, who was immediately taken away from her by the will of the reigning Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, they call him Paul (future Emperor Paul I) and deprive him of the opportunity to educate, allowing only occasionally to see. A number of sources claim that the true father of Paul was Catherine's lover S. V. Saltykov (there is no direct statement about this in the "Notes" of Catherine II, but they are also often interpreted this way). Others - that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The issue of paternity aroused public interest as well.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna finally deteriorated. Peter called his wife “reserve madam” and openly made mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing this, who during this period had a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland, which arose thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Sir Charles Henbury Williams. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to a daughter, Anna, which caused great displeasure of Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows why my wife became pregnant again! I am not at all sure whether this child is from me and whether I should take it personally. At this time, the condition of Elizabeth Petrovna worsened. All this made the prospect of expelling Catherine from Russia or concluding her in a monastery real. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine's secret correspondence with the disgraced Field Marshal Apraksin and the British Ambassador Williams, devoted to political issues, was revealed. Her former favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to openly live with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had completely ceased by that time. Ekaterina hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigoryevich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter with the court left the palace to look at the fire; at this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Alexei Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Paul I subsequently awarded the title of count.

Coup June 28, 1762

Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude of the officer corps towards him. So, he concluded an unfavorable treaty for Russia with Prussia, while Russia won a number of victories over it during the Seven Years' War and returned the lands occupied by the Russians to it. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (an ally of Russia), in order to return Schleswig taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to go on a campaign at the head of the guard. Peter announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land ownership and shared with others plans for the reform of church rites. Supporters of the coup accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike of Russia, complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - a smart, well-read, pious and benevolent wife, who was persecuted by her husband.

After relations with her husband finally deteriorated, and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guard intensified, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her comrades-in-arms, the main of whom were the Orlov brothers, Potemkin and Khitrovo, engaged in agitation in the guards units and won them over to their side. The immediate cause of the coup was the rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the disclosure and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy - Lieutenant Passek.

In the early morning of June 28 (July 9), 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the throne the next day, was taken into custody and died in the first days of July under unclear circumstances.

After the abdication of her husband, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as the reigning empress with the name of Catherine II, issuing a manifesto in which the basis for the removal of Peter was an attempt to change state religion and peace with Prussia. To justify her own rights to the throne (and not the heir to Paul), Catherine referred to "the desire of all Our loyal subjects is clear and not hypocritical." On September 22 (October 3), 1762, she was crowned in Moscow.

The reign of Catherine II: general information

In her memoirs, Catherine described the state of Russia at the beginning of her reign as follows:

The Empress formulated the tasks facing the Russian monarch as follows:

1. It is necessary to educate the nation, which should govern.
2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and force it to comply with the laws.
3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspire respect for its neighbors.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive, without sharp fluctuations, development. Upon her accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms - judicial, administrative, provincial, etc. The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of the fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million ( in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populous European country (it accounted for 20% of the population of Europe). Catherine II formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities. As Klyuchevsky wrote:

The Russian economy continued to be agrarian. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting increased by more than 2 times (in which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the XVIII century. there were 1200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663 of them). The export of Russian goods to other European countries has increased significantly, including through the established Black Sea ports.

Catherine II established a loan bank and introduced paper money into circulation.

Domestic politics

Catherine's commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the nature of her domestic policy and the direction of reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term "enlightened absolutism" is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine's time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian expanses and the harshness of the climate determine the regularity and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the system of government was unified. Their main idea was to criticize the outgoing feudal society. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and despotic forms of government.

Soon after the coup, the statesman N.I. Panin proposed the creation of an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 higher dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as the conditions of 1730). Catherine rejected this project.

According to another project of Panin, the Senate was transformed - 15 Dec. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, the prosecutor general became the head. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced, in particular, it lost its legislative initiative and became the body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial authority. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

Laid commission

An attempt was made to convene the Legislative Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the people's needs for comprehensive reforms.

More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% - from the townspeople, which also included the nobles, 20% - from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.

As the guiding document of the Commission of 1767, the empress prepared the "Instruction" - the theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism.

The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow

Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

Provincial reform

Nov 7 In 1775, the "Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - province, province, county, a two-tier administrative division began to operate - province, county (which was based on the principle of taxable population). Of the former 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which had 300-400 thousand residents. The provinces were divided into 10-12 counties, each with 20-30 thousand d.m.p.

Governor-General (governor) - kept order in local centers and 2-3 provinces, united under his authority, were subordinate to him. He had extensive administrative, financial and judicial powers, all military units and teams located in the provinces were subordinate to him.

Governor - was at the head of the province. They reported directly to the emperor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. The provincial prosecutor was subordinate to the governors. Finance in the province was handled by the Treasury, headed by the vice-governor. Land management was carried out by the provincial land surveyor. The executive body of the governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. The Order of Public Charity was in charge of schools, hospitals and shelters (social functions), as well as estate judicial institutions: the Upper Zemstvo Court for nobles, the Provincial Magistrate, which considered litigation between townspeople, and the Upper Reprisal for the trial of state peasants. The criminal and civil chamber judged all classes, were the highest judicial bodies in the provinces.

Captain police officer - stood at the head of the county, leader of the nobility, elected by him for three years. It was the executive body of the provincial government. In the counties, as in the provinces, there are estate institutions: for the nobility (county court), for the townspeople (city magistrate) and for state peasants (lower punishment). There was a county treasurer and a county surveyor. Representatives of the estates sat in the courts.

A conscientious court is called upon to stop strife and reconcile those who argue and quarrel. This court was without class. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.

Since the cities - the centers of counties were clearly not enough. Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements into cities, making them administrative centers. Thus, 216 new cities appeared. The population of the cities began to be called philistines and merchants.

The city was brought into a separate administrative unit. At its head, instead of the governor, a mayor was appointed, endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in the cities. The city was divided into parts (districts), which were supervised by a private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled by a quarter warden.

Liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich

Carrying out the provincial reform in the Left-bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to a common administrative division for the Russian Empire into provinces and counties, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack officers with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kyuchuk-Kainarji Treaty (1774), Russia received access to the Black Sea and Crimea. In the west, the weakened Commonwealth was on the verge of partition.

Thus, the further need to maintain the presence of the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks in their historical homeland for the protection of the southern Russian borders has disappeared. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the Russian authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, and also in connection with the support of the Pugachev uprising by the Cossacks, Catherine II ordered the Zaporizhzhya Sich to be disbanded, which was carried out on the orders of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and created the Army of the Faithful Cossacks, later the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 Catherine signs a manifesto that gives them the Kuban for perpetual use, where the Cossacks moved, having founded the city of Ekaterinodar.

The reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.

The beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

As a result of the general administrative reforms of the 1970s aimed at strengthening the state, a decision was made to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.

By her decree of 1771, Catherine liquidated the Kalmyk Khanate, thereby starting the process of joining the Kalmyk state to Russia, which previously had vassalage relations with the Russian state. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be in charge of a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established under the office of the Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs from among Russian officials were appointed. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members - one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshuts.

This decision of Catherine was preceded by a consistent policy of the empress to limit the khan's power in the Kalmyk Khanate. Thus, in the 1960s, the khanate intensified the crisis associated with the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landowners and peasants, the reduction of pasture land, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, and the interference of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the construction of the fortified Tsaritsyno Line, thousands of families began to settle in the area of ​​the main nomad camps of the Kalmyks. Don Cossacks, cities and fortresses began to be built throughout the Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, in turn, this aggravated internal relations in the khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activities of the Russian Orthodox Church to Christianize the nomads, as well as the outflow of people from the uluses to the cities and villages to work. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist church, a conspiracy was ripened with the aim of leaving the people to their historical homeland - to Dzungaria.

On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the policy of the empress, raised the uluses that had wandered along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia. Back in November 1770, the army was assembled on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many noyons and zaisangs, realizing the fatality of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind drove everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. The small Kalmyk ethnos lost on the way about 100,000 people killed in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, diseases, as well as captured, lost almost all their livestock - the main wealth of the people.

These tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in the poem "Pugachev" by Sergei Yesenin.

Regional reform in Estonia and Livonia

The Baltic states as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estonia and Livonia, a special Baltic order was abolished, which provided for more extensive rights than the Russian landowners had for local nobles to work and the personality of a peasant.

Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region

Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

The reform was carried out by the government without taking into account the ethnic composition of the population: the territory of Mordovia was divided between 4 provinces: Penza, Simbirsk, Tambov and Nizhny Novgorod.

Economic policy

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the development of the economy and trade. By decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from the authorities. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was banned so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (the state bank and the loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (since 1770, deposits were accepted for storage). A state bank was established and for the first time the issue of paper money - banknotes - was launched.

Of great importance was the state regulation of prices for salt introduced by the Empress, which was one of the most vital goods in the country. The Senate legislated the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in the regions of mass salting of fish. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine counted on increased competition and, ultimately, improving the quality of the goods.

The role of Russia in the world economy increased - Russian sailing fabric began to be exported to England in large quantities, the export of cast iron and iron to other European countries increased (the consumption of cast iron in the domestic Russian market also increased significantly).

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced within Russia was completely prohibited. Duties from 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys ... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the cost of exported goods.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine went through a series of financial crises and was forced to make external loans, the amount of which by the end of the reign of the Empress exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

Social politics

In 1768, a network of city schools was created, based on the class-lesson system. Schools began to open. Under Catherine, the systematic development of women's education began, in 1764 the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics office, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. The Russian Academy was founded in 1783.

In the provinces there were orders of public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg - Orphanages for homeless children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by the Military Academy named after Peter the Great), where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to make such an inoculation. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to take on the character of state events that were directly within the responsibilities of the Imperial Council, the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The "Charter of border and port quarantines" was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia were developing: hospitals were opened for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters. A number of fundamental works on questions of medicine have been published.

National politics

After the lands that were formerly part of the Commonwealth were annexed to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews turned up in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement in the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, beyond which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where the Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy removed all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity, the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762-1764 Catherine published two manifestos. The first - "On allowing all foreigners entering Russia to settle in which provinces they wish and on the rights granted to them" called on foreign citizens to move to Russia, the second determined the list of benefits and privileges for immigrants. Soon the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, allotted for immigrants. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until the settlement of those who had already entered. The creation of colonies on the Volga was on the rise: in 1765 - 12 colonies, in 1766 - 21, in 1767 - 67. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a prominent role in the life of Russia.

By 1786, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, Crimea, Right-Bank Ukraine, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.

The population of Russia in 1747 was 18 million people, by the end of the century - 36 million people.

In 1726, there were 336 cities in the country, by the beginning. XIX century - 634 cities. In con. In the 18th century, about 10% of the population lived in cities. In rural areas, 54% - privately owned and 40% - public

Legislation on estates

21 Apr. In 1785, two charters were issued: "Charter on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility" and "Charter on the cities."

Both letters regulated the legislation on the rights and obligations of the estates.

Complaint to the nobility:

• Already existing rights were confirmed.
• the nobility was exempted from the poll tax
• from the quartering of military units and teams
• from corporal punishment
• from compulsory service
• confirmed the right of unlimited disposal of the estate
• the right to own houses in towns
• the right to start enterprises on the estates and engage in trade
• ownership of the subsoil
• the right to have their own estate institutions
• the name of the 1st estate changed: not “nobility”, but “noble nobility”.
• it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; estates were to be passed on to legitimate heirs.
• nobles have the exclusive right to own land, but the Charter does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs.
• Ukrainian foremen were equalized in rights with Russian nobles.
• a nobleman who did not have an officer's rank was deprived of the right to vote.
• only nobles whose income from estates exceeds 100 rubles could hold elected positions.

Certificate of rights and benefits to the cities of the Russian Empire:

• the right of the top merchants not to pay the poll tax was confirmed.
• replacement of recruitment duty with a cash contribution.

The division of the urban population into 6 categories:

1. nobles, officials and clergy ("real city dwellers") - can have houses and land in cities without engaging in trade.
2. merchants of all three guilds (the lowest amount of capital for merchants of the 3rd guild is 1000 rubles)
3. artisans registered in workshops.
4. foreign and out-of-town merchants.
5. eminent citizens - merchants with a capital of over 50 thousand rubles, rich bankers (at least 100 thousand rubles), as well as urban intelligentsia: architects, painters, composers, scientists.
6. townspeople, who “feed on craft, needlework and work” (having no real estate in the city).

Representatives of the 3rd and 6th categories were called "philistines" (the word came from the Polish language through Ukraine and Belarus, originally meant "city dweller" or "citizen", from the word "place" - city and "town" - town).

Merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds and eminent citizens were exempted from corporal punishment. Representatives of the 3rd generation of eminent citizens were allowed to file a petition for the nobility.

Serf peasantry:

• The decree of 1763 placed the maintenance of the military teams sent to suppress peasant uprisings on the peasants themselves.
• By decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only into exile, but also to hard labor, and the period of hard labor was set by him; the landlords also had the right to return the exiled from hard labor at any time.
• The decree of 1767 forbade the peasants to complain about their master; disobedients were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court),
• Peasants could not take an oath, take payoffs and contracts.
• Trade in peasants reached a wide scale: they were sold in the markets, in advertisements on the pages of newspapers; they were lost at cards, exchanged, given, forcibly married.
• The decree of May 3, 1783 forbade the peasants of the Left-bank Ukraine and Sloboda Ukraine to pass from one owner to another.

The widespread idea that Catherine distributed the state peasants to the landowners, as has now been proven, is a myth (peasants from the lands acquired during the partitions of Poland, as well as palace peasants, were used for distribution). The zone of serfdom under Catherine spread to Ukraine. At the same time, the position of the monastery peasants was alleviated, who were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by a cash quitrent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants stopped.

Clergy lost its autonomous existence due to the secularization of church lands (1764), which made it possible to exist without the help of the state and independently of it. After the reform, the clergy became dependent on the state that financed it.

Religious policy

In general, in Russia under Catherine II, a policy of religious tolerance was pursued. Representatives of all traditional religions did not experience pressure and harassment. Thus, in 1773, a law was issued on the tolerance of all religions, forbidding the Orthodox clergy to interfere in the affairs of other confessions; secular authorities reserve the right to decide on the establishment of temples of any faith.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands near the church. But already in Feb. In 1764, she again issued a decree depriving the Church of landed property. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The jurisdiction of the state included the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.

In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic possessions was carried out in 1786.

Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activity.

Catherine achieved from the government of the Commonwealth the equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, persecution ceased Old Believers. The Empress initiated the return of the Old Believers, the economically active population, from abroad. They were specially assigned a place on the Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.

The free resettlement of Germans in Russia led to a significant increase in the number of Protestants(mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, freely perform worship. IN late XVIII century, in St. Petersburg alone, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans.

Behind Jewish Religion retained the right to public practice of faith. Religious matters and disputes were left to the Jewish courts. Jews, depending on the capital they had, were assigned to the appropriate estate and could be elected to local governments, become judges and other civil servants.

By decree of Catherine II in 1787, the full Arabic text was printed for the first time in Russia in the printing house of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. Islamic holy book of the Quran free giveaway"Kyrgyz". The publication significantly differed from the European ones primarily in that it was of a Muslim nature: the text for publication was prepared by Mullah Usman Ibrahim. From 1789 to 1798, 5 editions of the Koran were published in St. Petersburg. In 1788, a manifesto was issued in which the empress ordered "to establish in Ufa a spiritual assembly of the Mohammedan law, which has in its department all the spiritual ranks of that law, ... excluding the Tauride region." Thus, Catherine began to integrate the Muslim community into the state system of the empire. Muslims were given the right to build and rebuild mosques.

Buddhism also received state support in the regions where he traditionally practiced. In 1764, Catherine established the post of Khambo Lama - the head of the Buddhists of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. In 1766, the Buryat lamas recognized Ekaterina as the incarnation of the Bodhisattva of White Tara for her benevolence towards Buddhism and humane rule.

Domestic political problems

At the time of accession to the throne of Catherine II, the former Russian emperor Ivan VI. In 1764, Lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty in the Shlisselburg Fortress, won over part of the garrison to his side in order to free Ivan. The guards, however, in accordance with the instructions given to them, stabbed the prisoner, and Mirovich himself was arrested and executed.

In 1771, a major plague epidemic occurred in Moscow, complicated by popular unrest in Moscow, called the Plague Riot. The rebels destroyed the Chudov Monastery in the Kremlin. The next day, the crowd took the Donskoy Monastery by storm, killed Archbishop Ambrose, who was hiding in it, and began to smash the quarantine outposts and the houses of the nobility. Troops under the command of G. G. Orlov were sent to suppress the uprising. After three days of fighting, the rebellion was crushed.

Peasant War 1773-1775

In 1773-1774 there was a peasant uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev. It covered the lands of the Yaik army, the Orenburg province, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkiria, part of Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga regions. During the uprising, the Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all provinces where hostilities unfolded joined the Cossacks. After the suppression of the uprising, some liberal reforms were curtailed and conservatism intensified.

Main stages:

• sept. 1773 - March 1774
• March 1774 - July 1774
• July 1774-1775

17 Sept. 1773 the uprising begins. Near the Yaitsky town, government detachments, marching to suppress the rebellion, go over to the side of 200 Cossacks. Without taking the town, the rebels go to Orenburg.

March - July 1774 - the rebels seize the factories of the Urals and Bashkiria. Under the Trinity fortress, the rebels are defeated. Kazan is captured on July 12. On July 17 they were again defeated and retreated to the right bank of the Volga. 12 Sept. 1774 Pugachev was captured.

Freemasonry, Novikov Case, Radishchev Case

1762-1778 - characterized by the organizational design of Russian Freemasonry and the dominance of the English system (Yelagin Freemasonry).

In the 60s and especially in the 70s. 18th century Freemasonry is becoming increasingly popular among the educated nobility. The number of Masonic lodges increases several times, even despite the skeptical (if not semi-hostile) attitude towards Freemasonry of Catherine II. The question naturally arises why a significant part of the Russian educated society became so interested in Masonic teachings? The main reason, in our opinion, was the search for a new ethical ideal, a new meaning of life, by a certain part of the noble society. Traditional Orthodoxy could not satisfy them for obvious reasons. In the course of Peter the Great's state reforms, the church turned into an appendage of the state apparatus, serving it and justifying any, even the most immoral, actions of its representatives.

That is why the Order of Freemasons became so popular, because it offered its adherents brotherly love and sacred wisdom based on the undistorted true values ​​of early Christianity.

And, secondly, in addition to internal self-improvement, many were attracted by the opportunity to master secret mystical knowledge.

And finally, magnificent rituals, robes, hierarchy, romantic atmosphere of meetings of Masonic lodges could not fail to attract the attention of Russian nobles as people, primarily military people, accustomed to military uniforms and paraphernalia, servility, etc.

In the 1760s a large number of representatives of the highest noble aristocracy and the emerging noble intelligentsia, as a rule, are opposed to the political regime of Catherine II. Suffice it to mention Vice-Chancellor N.I. Panin, his brother General P.I. Panin, their great-nephew A.B. Kurakin (1752–1818), Kurakin’s friend Prince. G. P. Gagarin (1745–1803), Prince N. V. Repnin, future Field Marshal M. I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, secretary N. I. Panin and famous playwright D. I. Fonvizin and many others.

As for the organizational structure of Russian Freemasonry of this period, its development proceeded in two directions. Most of the Russian lodges were part of the system of English or John Freemasonry, which consisted of only 3 traditional degrees with an elected leadership. The main goal was proclaimed the moral self-improvement of man, mutual assistance and charity. The head of this direction of Russian Freemasonry was Ivan Perfilievich Elagin, appointed in 1772 by the Grand Lodge of London (Old Freemasons) as the Great Provincial Master of Russia. By his name, the whole system is called Elagin Freemasonry.

A minority of the lodges worked according to various systems of Strict Supervision, which recognized the highest degrees and emphasized the achievement of higher mystical knowledge (the German direction of Freemasonry).

The exact number of lodges in Russia of that period has not yet been established. Of those that are known, the majority entered (albeit on different conditions) into an alliance led by Elagin. However, this union proved to be extremely short-lived. Yelagin himself, despite the fact that he denied higher degrees, nevertheless sympathized with the aspirations of many Masons to find the highest Masonic wisdom. It was at his suggestion that Prince A.B. Kurakin, a childhood friend of Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich, under the pretext of announcing the new wedding of the heir to the Swedish royal house, went to Stockholm in 1776 with a secret mission to establish contacts with Swedish Masons, who were rumored to have this higher knowledge.

However, Kurakin's mission gave rise to another split in Russian Freemasonry.

MATERIALS ON THE PROSECUTION OF NOVIKOV, HIS ARREST AND CONSEQUENCE

The investigation file of Novikov includes a huge number of documents - letters and decrees of Ekaterina, correspondence between Prozorovsky and Sheshkovsky during the investigation - with each other and with Ekaterina, numerous interrogations of Novikov and his detailed explanations, letters, etc. The main part of the case fell into its own time in the archive and is now stored in the funds of the Central state archive ancient acts in Moscow (TsGADA, category VIII, case 218). At the same time, a significant number of the most important papers were not included in the Novikov file, since they remained in the hands of those who conducted the investigation - Prozorovsky, Sheshkovsky, and others. These originals subsequently passed into private possession and forever remained lost to us. Fortunately, some of them turned out to be published in the middle of the 19th century, and therefore we know them only from these printed sources.

The publication of the materials of the investigation of the Russian educator began in the second half of the 19th century. the first large group The documents were published by the historian Ilovaisky in the Chronicles of Russian Literature published by Tikhonravov. These documents were taken from a genuine investigative file conducted by Prince Prozorovsky. In the same years, new materials appeared in a number of publications. In 1867, M. Longinov, in his study "Novikov and the Moscow Martinists", published a number of new documents taken from the "Novikov Case", and reprinted all previously published papers from the investigation file. Thus, in Longinov's book was given the first and most complete set of documents, which until today, as a rule, were used by all scientists in the study of Novikov's activities. But this Longinus code is far from complete. Many of the most important materials were unknown to Longinov and therefore were not included in the book. Already a year after the publication of his research - in 1868 - in the II volume of the "Collection of the Russian Historical Society", Popov published a number of important papers transferred to him by P. A. Vyazemsky. Apparently, these papers came to Vyazemsky from the archives of the chief executioner Radishchev and Novikov-Sheshkovsky. From Popov's publication, for the first time, the questions posed by Sheshkovsky to Novikov became known (Longinov knew only the answers), and objections, apparently written by Sheshkovok himself. These objections are important for us in that they undoubtedly arose as a result of remarks made by Catherine on the answers of Novikov, whose case she personally dealt with. Among the questions put to Novikov was question number 21 - about his relationship with the heir Pavel (Paul's name is not indicated in the text of the question, and it was about a "person"). Longinov did not know this question and the answer to it, since it was not on the list that Longinov used. Popov was the first to publish both this question and the answer to it.

A year later, in 1869, Academician Pekarsky published the book Supplement to the History of Masons in Russia in the 18th Century. The book contained materials on the history of Freemasonry, among many papers there were also documents related to Novikov's investigative case. Pekarskaya's publication is of particular value to us, since it characterizes Novikov's educational book publishing activity in detail. In particular, papers characterizing the history of Novikov's relationship with Pokhodyashin deserve special attention, from which we learn about Novikov's most important activity - organizing assistance to starving peasants. The significance of Novikov's investigative case is extremely great. First of all, it contains abundant biographical material, which, despite the general scarcity of information about Novikov, is sometimes the only source for studying the life and work of the Russian enlightener. But the main value of these documents lies elsewhere - a careful study of them clearly convinces us that Novikov was persecuted for a long time and systematically, that he was arrested, having previously destroyed the entire book publishing business, and then secretly and cowardly, without trial, was imprisoned in the casemate of the Shlisselburg Fortress - not for Freemasonry, but for the huge educational activity independent of the government, which became a major phenomenon in public life in the 80s.

The answers to questions 12 and 21, which speak of "repentance" and pin hopes on "royal mercy", should be understood by the modern reader historically correctly, with a clear idea not only of the era, but also of the circumstances in which these confessions were made. We must also not forget that Novikov was in the hands of the cruel official Sheshkovsky, whom his contemporaries called the "house executioner" of Catherine II. Questions 12 and 21 concerned such cases, which Novikov could not deny - he published books, he knew about relations with the "special" - Pavel. Therefore, he showed that he committed these “crimes” “out of thoughtlessness about the importance of this act”, pleaded “guilty”. It is worth recalling that under similar conditions, Radishchev acted exactly the same way when, forced to admit that he really called the serfs to revolt or “threatened the tsars with a chopping block”, he showed: “I wrote this without thinking” or: “I admit my error”, etc. d.

Appeals to Catherine II were officially binding. Similarly, in Radishchev's answers to Sheshkovsky, we will encounter appeals to Catherine II, which quite obviously do not express the real attitude of the revolutionary towards the Russian Empress. The same necessity compelled Novikov to "throw himself at the feet of her Imperial Majesty". A serious illness, a depressed state of mind from the realization that not only his whole life's work was destroyed, but his name was blackened by slander - all this, of course, also determined the nature of emotional appeals to the empress.

At the same time, it must be remembered that, despite the courage shown by Novikov during the investigation, his behavior differs from that of the first Russian revolutionary. Radishchev drew the firmness so necessary in such circumstances from the proud consciousness of his historical rightness, relied in his behavior on the morality of the revolutionary forged by him, calling on him to openly go towards danger, and if necessary, even death, in the name of the triumph of the great cause of the liberation of the people. Radishchev fought, and sitting in the fortress, he defended himself; Novikov - justified.

Novikov's investigative case has not yet been subjected to systematic and scientific study. Until now, it has been used only for reference. The following two circumstances undoubtedly prevented systematic study: a) the extreme dispersal of documents among publications that have long become a bibliographic rarity, and b) the established tradition of printing documents of the Novikov investigation file surrounded by abundant materials on the history of Freemasonry. In this sea of ​​Masonic papers, the Novikov case proper was lost, the main thing in it was lost - the growth of Catherine's persecution of Novikov, and of him alone (and not Freemasonry), for book publishing, for educational activities, for writings - persecution that ended not only with arrest and imprisonment in fortress of the hated empress advanced public figure, but also by the defeat of the entire educational work (the decree on the prohibition of leasing the university printing house to Novikov, the closure of the bookstore, the confiscation of books, etc.).

Foreign policy of Russia in the reign of Catherine II

The foreign policy of the Russian state under Catherine was aimed at strengthening the role of Russia in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: "one must be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker ... keep one's hands free ... do not trail anyone with a tail."

Expansion of the Russian Empire

The new territorial growth of Russia begins with the accession of Catherine II. After the first Turkish war, in 1774 Russia acquired important points at the mouths of the Dnieper and Don and in the Kerch Strait (Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region join. The second Turkish war ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Thanks to all these acquisitions, Russia is becoming a firm foot on the Black Sea. At the same time, the Polish partitions give Russia Western Russia. According to the first of them, in 1773 Russia received a part of Belarus (the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev); according to the second partition of Poland (1793), Russia received the regions: Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; according to the third (1795-1797) - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Russia, the upper course of the Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third section, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia (the act of abdication of Duke Biron).

Sections of the Commonwealth

The Polish-Lithuanian federal state of the Commonwealth included the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The reason for intervening in the affairs of the Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine exerted strong pressure on the gentry in order to elect her protege Stanislav August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising that was raised in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its success in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine to divide the Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia brought in their troops.

In 1772 took place 1st section of the Commonwealth. Austria received all of Galicia with districts, Prussia - West Prussia (Pomorye), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the partition and renounce claims to the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. The conservative part of the population of the Targowice Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 took place 2nd section of the Commonwealth, approved by the Grodno Seimas. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the land along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Right-Bank Ukraine.

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, whose goals were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of that year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A. V. Suvorov.

In 1795 took place 3rd partition of Poland. Austria received Southern Poland with Luban and Krakow, Prussia - Central Poland with Warsaw, Russia - Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus.

October 13, 1795 - a conference of three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.

Russian-Turkish wars. Annexation of Crimea

An important direction in the foreign policy of Catherine II was also the territories of the Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774), using as a pretext that one of the Russian detachments, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win one victory after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (the Battle of Kozludzhi, the battle of the Ryaba Mogila, the Cahul battle, the Largas battle, the Chesme battle, etc.), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi Treaty, as a result of which the Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but became de facto dependent on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea, along with two important ports.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, Russia's policy towards the Crimean Khanate was aimed at establishing a pro-Russian ruler in it and joining Russia. Under pressure from Russian diplomacy, Shahin Giray was elected khan. The previous khan - protege of Turkey Devlet IV Giray - at the beginning of 1777 tried to resist, but it was suppressed by A. V. Suvorov, Devlet IV fled to Turkey. At the same time, the landing of Turkish troops in the Crimea was prevented, and thus an attempt to unleash a new war was prevented, after which Turkey recognized Shahin Giray as a khan. In 1782, an uprising broke out against him, which was suppressed by the Russian troops brought to the peninsula, and in 1783, by the manifesto of Catherine II, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.

After the victory, the empress, together with the Austrian emperor Joseph II, made a triumphal trip to the Crimea.

The next war with Turkey took place in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both on land - the Kinburn battle, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Ackerman, etc., and the sea ones - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), The Kerch naval battle (1790), the Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and the Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Iasi Peace Treaty, which secured the Crimea and Ochakov for Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories by Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, and the assertion of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result of them, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region were ceded to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans were strengthened, and Russia's authority on the world stage was strengthened.

Relations with Georgia. Georgievsky treatise

Under the king of Kartli and Kakheti, Heraclius II (1762-1798), the united Kartli-Kakheti state was significantly strengthened, its influence in Transcaucasia was growing. Turks are expelled from the country. Georgian culture is being revived, book printing is emerging. Enlightenment is becoming one of the leading directions of social thought. Heraclius turned to Russia for protection from Persia and Turkey. Catherine II, who fought with Turkey, on the one hand, was interested in an ally, on the other hand, did not want to send significant military forces to Georgia. In 1769-1772, an insignificant Russian detachment under the command of General Totleben fought against Turkey on the side of Georgia. In 1783, Russia and Georgia signed the Treaty of Georgievsk establishing a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in exchange for Russia's military protection. In 1795, the Persian Shah Agha Mohammed Khan Qajar invaded Georgia and, after the Battle of Krtsanis, ravaged Tbilisi.

Relations with Sweden

Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered the war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, England and Holland, unleashed a war with her for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered the territory of Russia were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedes' battle fleet in the battle of Vyborg, but due to a storm that had flown in, suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed the Treaty of Verel in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

Relations with other countries

In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia normalized, and an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries. This agreement served as the basis for the formation of the Northern System - the union of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-English cooperation continued further.

In the third quarter of the XVIII century. there was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution led to the creation of the United States. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the "Declaration of Armed Neutrality", supported by most European countries (ships of neutral countries had the right to armed protection when attacked by the fleet of a belligerent country).

In European affairs, the role of Russia increased during the Austro-Prussian war of 1778-1779, when she acted as an intermediary between the warring parties at the Teschen Congress, where Catherine essentially dictated her terms of reconciliation, restoring balance in Europe. After that, Russia often acted as an arbitrator in disputes between the German states, which turned to Catherine directly for mediation.

One of Catherine's grandiose plans in the foreign policy arena was the so-called Greek project - the joint plans of Russia and Austria to divide Turkish lands, expel Turks from Europe, revive the Byzantine Empire and proclaim Catherine's grandson Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich as emperor. According to the plans, the buffer state of Dacia is created on the site of Bessarabia, Moldavia and Wallachia, and the western part of the Balkan Peninsula is transferred to Austria. The project was developed in the early 1780s, but was not implemented due to the contradictions of the allies and the reconquest of significant Turkish territories by Russia on its own.

In October 1782, the Treaty of Friendship and Trade with Denmark was signed.

On February 14, 1787, she received the Venezuelan politician Francisco Miranda near Kyiv at the Mariinsky Palace.

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of the monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she abstained from participating in hostilities against France. According to popular belief, one of the real reasons for the formation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine refused all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all suspected sympathizers for the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

During the reign of Catherine the Russian Empire acquired the status of a "great power". As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. the Crimean peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795. Russia took part in the three sections of the Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. The Russian Empire also included Russian America - Alaska and the West coast of the North American continent (the current state of California).

Catherine II as a figure of the Age of Enlightenment

The long reign of Catherine II 1762-1796 is filled with significant and highly controversial events and processes. The "golden age of the Russian nobility" was at the same time the age of Pugachevism, the "Instruction" and the Legislative Commission coexisted with persecution. And yet it was an integral era, which had its own core, its own logic, its own super-task. It was a time when the imperial government was trying to implement one of the most thoughtful, consistent and successful reform programs in the history of Russia. The ideological basis of the reforms was the philosophy of the European Enlightenment, with which the empress was well acquainted. In this sense, her reign is often called the era of enlightened absolutism. Historians argue about what enlightened absolutism was - the utopian teaching of the enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot, etc.) about the ideal union of kings and philosophers, or a political phenomenon that found its real embodiment in Prussia (Frederick II the Great), Austria (Joseph II), Russia (Catherine II) and others. These disputes are not unfounded. They reflect the key contradiction between the theory and practice of enlightened absolutism: between the need to radically change the established order of things (estate system, despotism, lack of rights, etc.) and the inadmissibility of upheavals, the need for stability, the inability to infringe on the social force on which this order rests - the nobility . Catherine II, like perhaps no one else, understood the tragic insurmountability of this contradiction: “You,” she blamed the French philosopher D. Diderot, “write on paper that will endure everything, but I, the poor empress, are on human skin, so sensitive and painful. Her position on the question of the serfs is highly indicative. There is no doubt about the negative attitude of the empress to serfdom. She often thought about ways to cancel it. But things did not go further than cautious reflections. Catherine II was clearly aware that the elimination of serfdom would be indignantly perceived by the nobles. The feudal legislation was expanded: the landowners were allowed to exile peasants to hard labor for any period, and the peasants were forbidden to file complaints against the landowners. The most significant transformations in the spirit of enlightened absolutism were:

• convocation and activities of the Legislative Commission1767-1768. The goal was to develop a new code of laws, which was intended to replace the Cathedral Code of 1649. Representatives of the nobility, officials, townspeople, and state peasants worked in the Legislative Commission. By the opening of the commission, Catherine II wrote the famous "Instruction", in which she used the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Beccaria and other enlighteners. It spoke about the presumption of innocence, the eradication of despotism, the spread of education, and the well-being of the people. The activities of the commission did not bring the desired result. A new set of laws was not developed, the deputies failed to rise above the narrow interests of the estates and did not show much zeal in formulating reforms. In December 1768, the empress dissolved the Legislative Commission and did not create more similar institutions;
• reform of the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire. The country was divided into 50 provinces (300-400 thousand male souls), each of which consisted of 10-12 counties (20-30 thousand male souls). A uniform system of provincial administration was established: a governor appointed by the emperor, provincial government exercising executive power, the Treasury (collecting taxes, spending them), the Order of Public Charity (schools, hospitals, shelters, etc.). Courts were created, built according to a strictly estate principle - for nobles, townspeople, state peasants. Administrative, financial and judicial functions were thus clearly separated. The provincial division introduced by Catherine II was preserved until 1917;
• the adoption in 1785 of the Letter of Complaint to the nobility, which secured all the estate rights and privileges of the nobles (exemption from corporal punishment, the exclusive right to own peasants, transfer them by inheritance, sell, buy villages, etc.);
• adoption of the Letter of Complaint to the cities, which formalized the rights and privileges of the "third estate" - the townspeople. The urban estate was divided into six categories, received limited self-government rights, elected the mayor and members of the city Duma;
• the adoption in 1775 of a manifesto on freedom of enterprise, according to which the permission of government bodies was not required to open an enterprise;
• reforms 1782-1786 in the field of school education.

Of course, these transformations were limited. The autocratic principle of government, serfdom, the estate system remained unshakable. Pugachev's peasant war (1773-1775), the storming of the Bastille (1789) and the execution of King Louis XVI (1793) did not contribute to the deepening of reforms. They went intermittently, in the 90s. and completely stopped. The persecution of A. N. Radishchev (1790), the arrest of N. I. Novikov (1792) were not random episodes. They testify to the deep contradictions of enlightened absolutism, the impossibility of unambiguous assessments of the "golden age of Catherine II."

Nevertheless, it was precisely in this era that the Free Economic Society appeared (1765), free printing houses worked, there was a heated magazine debate, in which the empress personally participated, the Hermitage (1764) and the Public Library in St. Petersburg (1795), the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens were founded (1764) and pedagogical schools in both capitals. Historians also say that the efforts of Catherine II, aimed at encouraging the social activity of the estates, especially the nobility, laid the foundations of civil society in Russia.

Ekaterina - writer and publisher

Catherine belonged to a small number of monarchs who communicated so intensively and directly with their subjects through the drafting of manifestos, instructions, laws, polemical articles and indirectly in the form of satirical writings, historical dramas and pedagogical opuses. In her memoirs, she confessed: "I cannot see a clean pen without feeling the desire to immediately dip it in ink."

She had an extraordinary talent as a writer, leaving behind a large collection of works - notes, translations, librettos, fables, fairy tales, comedies "Oh, time!", "Mrs. "The Invisible Bride" (1771-1772), essays, etc., participated in the weekly satirical magazine "Everything", published since 1769. The Empress turned to journalism in order to influence public opinion, so the main idea of ​​​​the magazine was criticism of human vices and weaknesses. Other subjects of irony were the superstitions of the population. Catherine herself called the magazine: "Satire in a smiling spirit."

Development of culture and art

Catherine considered herself a "philosopher on the throne" and favorably treated the Enlightenment, was in correspondence with Voltaire, Diderot, d "Alembert.

Under her rule, the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg. She patronized various areas of art - architecture, music, painting.

It is impossible not to mention the mass settlement of German families initiated by Catherine in various regions of modern Russia, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic countries. The goal was to modernize Russian science and culture.

Features of personal life

Catherine was a brunette of medium height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and commitment to "free love".

Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Ekaterinologist P.I. Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergey Saltykov, G.G. Potemkin (later prince), hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became a count of the Russian Empire and a general. With Potemkin, according to some sources, Catherine was secretly married (1775, see Wedding of Catherine II and Potemkin). After 1762, she planned a marriage with Orlov, but on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

It is worth noting that Catherine's "debauchery" was not such a scandalous phenomenon against the backdrop of the general licentiousness of the mores of the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. Catherine's favorites (with the exception of Potemkin, who had state abilities) did not influence politics. Nevertheless, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the higher nobility, who sought benefits through flattery to a new favorite, tried to make “their own man” a lover to the Empress, etc.

Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich (1754) (it is suspected that his father was Sergei Saltykov) and Alexei Bobrinsky (1762 - son of Grigory Orlov) and two daughters: Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly daughter future King of Poland Stanislaw Poniatowski) and Elizaveta Grigoryevna Tyomkina (1775 - Potemkin's daughter).

Famous figures of the Catherine era

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the fruitful activities of outstanding Russian scientists, diplomats, military, statesmen, cultural and art figures. In 1873, in St. Petersburg, in the square in front of the Alexandrinsky Theater (now Ostrovsky Square), an impressive multi-figured monument to Catherine was erected, designed by M. O. Mikeshin by sculptors A. M. Opekushin and M. A. Chizhov and architects V. A. Schroeter and D. I. Grimm. The foot of the monument consists of sculptural composition, whose characters are prominent personalities of the Catherine's era and associates of the Empress:

• Grigory Alexandrovich Potemkin-Tavrichesky
• Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov
• Petr Alexandrovich Rumyantsev
• Alexander Andreevich Bezborodko
• Alexander Alekseevich Vyazemsky
• Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy
• Vasily Yakovlevich Chichagov
• Alexey Grigorievich Orlov
• Gavriil Romanovich Derzhavin
• Ekaterina Romanovna Vorontsova-Dashkova

The events of the last years of the reign of Alexander II - in particular, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 - prevented the implementation of the plan to expand the memorial of the Catherine's era. D. I. Grimm developed a project for the construction in the square next to the monument to Catherine II of bronze statues and busts depicting figures of the glorious reign. According to the final list, approved a year before the death of Alexander II, six bronze sculptures and twenty-three busts on granite pedestals were to be placed next to the monument to Catherine.

In growth were to be depicted: Count N. I. Panin, Admiral G. A. Spiridov, writer D. I. Fonvizin, Prosecutor General of the Senate Prince A. A. Vyazemsky, Field Marshal Prince N. V. Repnin and General A. I. Bibikov, former chairman of the Commission on the code. In the busts - the publisher and journalist N. I. Novikov, the traveler P. S. Pallas, the playwright A. P. Sumarokov, the historians I. N. Boltin and Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, the artists D. G. Levitsky and V. L Borovikovsky, architect A. F. Kokorinov, favorite of Catherine II Count G. G. Orlov, admirals F. F. Ushakov, S. K. Greig, A. I. Cruz, military leaders: Count Z. G. Chernyshev, Prince V M. Dolgorukov-Krymsky, Count I. E. Ferzen, Count V. A. Zubov; Moscow governor-general Prince M.N. Volkonsky, Novgorod governor Count Ya.E. Sievers, diplomat Ya.I. Bulgakov, pacifier of the “plague riot” of 1771 in Moscow P.D. Panin and I. I. Mikhelson, the hero of the capture of the fortress Ochakov I. I. Meller-Zakomelsky.

In addition to those listed, such famous figures of the era are noted as:

• Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov
• Leonhard Euler
• Giacomo Quarenghi
• Vasily Bazhenov
• Jean Baptiste Vallin-Delamote
• N. A. Lvov
• Ivan Kulibin
• Matvey Kazakov

Catherine in art

To the cinema

• "The best film 2", 2009. In the role of Catherine - Mikhail Galustyan
• "Catherine's Musketeers", 2007. In the role of Catherine - Alla Oding
• "The Secret of the Maestro", 2007. In the role of Catherine - Olesya Zhurakovskaya
• "Favorite (TV series)", 2005. In the role of Ekaterina - Natalya Surkova
• "Catherine the Great", 2005. In the role of Catherine - Emily Brun
• "Emelyan Pugachev (film)", 1977; "Golden Age", 2003. In the role of Catherine - Via Artmane
• "Russian Ark", 2002. In the role of Catherine - Maria Kuznetsova, Natalia Nikulenko
• "Russian rebellion", 2000. In the role of Catherine - Olga Antonova
• "Countess Sheremeteva", 1988; "Evenings on a farm near Dikanka", 2005. In the role of Catherine - Lidia Fedoseeva-Shukshina
• "Catherine the Great", 1995. In the role of Catherine - Catherine Zeta-Jones
• "Young Catherine" ("Young Catherine"), 1991. In the role of Catherine - Julia Ormond
• "Joke", 1993 In the role of Catherine - Irina Muravyova
• “Vivat, midshipmen!”, 1991; "Midshipmen 3 (film)", 1992. In the role of Catherine - Kristina Orbakaite
• "Royal Hunt", 1990. In the role of Catherine - Svetlana Kryuchkova.
• "Dreams about Russia". In the role of Catherine - Marina Vladi
• "Captain's daughter". In the role of Catherine - Natalia Gundareva
• "Katharina und ihre wilden hengste", 1983. In the role of Ekaterina Sandra Nova.

black and white movie stars

• "Great Catherine", 1968. In the role of Catherine - Jeanne Moreau
• "Evenings on a farm near Dikanka", 1961. In the role of Catherine - Zoya Vasilkova.
• "John Paul Jones", 1959. In the role of Catherine - Bette Davis
• "Admiral Ushakov", 1953. In the role of Catherine - Olga Zhizneva.
• "A Royal Scandal", 1945. In the role of Catherine - Tallulah Bankhead.
• "The Scarlet Empress", 1934. Ch. role - Marlene Dietrich
• "Forbidden Paradise", 1924. In the role of Catherine - Pola Negri

In the theatre

• "Catherine the Great. Musical Chronicles of the Empire, 2008. People's Artist of Russia Nina Shamber as Ekaterina

In literature

• B. Show. "Great Catherine"
• V. N. Ivanov. "Empress Fike"
• V. S. PIKUL "Favorite"
• V. S. PIKUL "Pen and sword"
• Boris Akunin. "Extracurricular reading"
• Vasily Aksyonov. "Voltaireans and Voltairians"
• A. S. Pushkin. "Captain's daughter"
• Henri Troyat. "Catherine the Great"

In fine arts

Memory

In 1778, Catherine composed the following playful epitaph for herself (translated from French):
Here is buried
Catherine II, born in Stettin
April 21, 1729.
She spent 1744 in Russia, and left
There she married Peter III.
Fourteen years old
She made a triple project - like
Spouse, Elizabeth I and the people.
She used everything to achieve this success.
Eighteen years of boredom and solitude forced her to read many books.
Having ascended the Russian throne, she strove for good,
She wanted to bring happiness, freedom and property to her subjects.
She forgave easily and did not hate anyone.
Condescending, who loved the ease of life, cheerful by nature, with the soul of a republican
And a good heart - she had friends.
Work was easy for her
In society and the verbal sciences, she
I found pleasure.

monuments

• In 1873, a monument to Catherine II was unveiled on Alexandrinskaya Square in St. Petersburg (see the section Famous Figures of Catherine's Era).
• In 1907, a monument to Catherine II was opened in Yekaterinodar (it stood until 1920, was restored on September 8, 2006).
• In 2002, in Novorzhev, founded by Catherine II, a monument was opened in her honor.
• On October 27, 2007, monuments to Catherine II were opened in Odessa and Tiraspol.
• On May 15, 2008, a monument to Catherine II was unveiled in Sevastopol.
• On September 14, 2008, a monument to Catherine II the Great was unveiled in Podolsk. The monument depicts the Empress at the moment of signing the Decree of October 5, 1781, where there is an entry: “... we graciously order the economic village of Podol to be renamed the city ...”.
• In Veliky Novgorod, on the Monument "1000th Anniversary of Russia", among 129 figures of the most prominent personalities in Russian history (as of 1862), there is a figure of Catherine II.
• Catherine made four mistakes in a three-letter word. Instead of "more", she wrote "ischo".

The reign of Catherine II (briefly)

The reign of Catherine II (briefly)

On April 21, 1729, Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Tserptskaya is born, who in the future will be known as Catherine the Great. At the same time, her family was very short of money and therefore she managed to get only a home education, which influenced the girl's personality.

In 1744, an event takes place that has become significant not only for the princess, but for the entire history of the Russian Empire. It is she who is chosen by Elizaveta Petrovna as the bride of Peter the Third. Sophia, who arrived at the court, began to engage in self-education with great pleasure, studying the history, culture and language of her new homeland. At baptism, she receives the name Ekaterina Alekseevna.

The wedding ceremony with Peter takes place on August 21, 1745, but this marriage brought the woman only misfortune, since Peter did not pay attention to her at all. For a fairly long period, balls and hunting become the only entertainment for the Empress. And on September 20, 1754, he gives birth to a son, Pavel, who is immediately taken away from her. The spouses themselves did not hesitate to make lovers.

After the birth of her daughter, Empress Elizabeth falls ill. In addition, the correspondence of Catherine II with the Austrian ambassador opens. Shortly after the death of Elizabeth, Peter ascends the throne.

The researchers argue that the empress began planning a conspiracy against her husband long before that, along with her favorites. In 1761, she secretly gives birth to a son from one of them (Orlov).

As a result of the propaganda competently carried out in the guards units on June 28, 1762, the units take the oath to Catherine, and Peter renounces the throne.

In domestic policy, Catherine II adhered to the ideas of the Enlightenment. It was the enlightened absolutism of the empress that contributed to the strengthening of autocracy, the strengthening of the bureaucratic apparatus and the unification of the management system. Thanks to the active work of the Legislative Commission, it became possible to carry out many innovative reforms.

The foreign policy of Empress Catherine was more successful and active. A particularly important task was to secure the southern borders of the state. At the same time, the Turkish campaigns were of great importance. The interests of Russia, France and England clashed in them. Also, great importance during the reign of Catherine was given to the accession of Belarus and Ukraine to Russia.