Specialization of individual countries in the production of certain types. International division of labor

The branch of international specialization is the result of the geographical division of labor. The specialization of individual countries in the production of certain types of products and services implies their production in quantities that significantly exceed the own needs of the producing country. It finds concrete expression in the formation of branches of international specialization, i.e., such branches that are largely export-oriented and primarily determine the "face" of the country in the international geographical division of labor.

Japan ranks first or second in the world in car production. It exports about half of all produced cars to other countries. The automotive industry is a branch of its international specialization.

Canada ranks seventh in the world in grain production and second in grain exports. Grain farming is a branch of its international specialization.

In turn, international specialization necessitates the international exchange of goods and services. This exchange finds expression in the development of international economic relations, in the growth in the number and power of cargo flows, and between the place of production and the place of consumption there is always a larger or smaller territorial gap.

27. The main integration groupings on the economic and political maps of the world. (Marshankulova)

Regional economic integration at the beginning of the XXI century. represented in the world by several large and medium-sized integration groups. Since one of the main signs of regional integration is the territorial proximity of its member countries, the geographical boundaries of such groupings are usually quite clear.

As expected, two main integration groupings have developed in the two leading centers of the world economy - in Western Europe and in North America. In Western Europe it European Union(EU), which has gone through several successive stages in its development and united in early 2007 27 countries with general population about 500 million people.

In North America this North American Free Trade Agreement(CACST, or - in the initial letters of the Latin alphabet - NAFTA), which was formed in two stages and includes three countries with a total population of 440 million people: the United States, Canada and Mexico.

In the world of developing countries, only two can be attributed to the number of integration groupings without special reservations. First, this Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), now uniting all ten countries of this subregion with a total population of 580 million people. Secondly, this Latin American Integration Association(LA5), which includes 11 countries of the region with a total population of 450 million people. Both of these groupings aim at a gradual transition to the regime of a free trade zone.


All the other numerous groupings of developing countries clearly do not reach the level of integration, so they should be attributed to various kinds of economic unions and blocs.

Examples of this kind in Asia are the Association for Regional Cooperation of South Asia, the Council of Arab Economic Unity, in Africa - the Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa, the Economic Community of West African States, the West African Economic and Monetary Union, the South African Development Community, the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa , in Latin America - Latin American economic system, Caribbean Common Market, Association of Caribbean States, Andean Integration System, Andean Pact), etc.

It is symptomatic that the growing role of the Asia-Pacific region in the world economy also stimulated the formation of several economic groupings in this vast region. the globe. One of these groupings can be classified as integration or at least "near-integration". This is Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) – a kind of intergovernmental forum, formally having a consultative status, but actually developing real rules for conducting trade, investment, financial activities Established at the initiative of Australia in 1989, APEC has already expanded its membership several times, so that since 2001 it has included 21 countries and territories.

Sectoral economic groupings have also become widespread. There are several dozen of them. They are especially characteristic of developing countries, which, with the help of this kind cartel agreements between producers and exporters of certain raw materials and food products seek to strengthen their positions in the world commodity markets.

A very special role among industrial economic groupings is played by Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries(OPEC). Created in 1960, it now has 13 member countries. The goals of OPEC are to coordinate and unify the oil policy of the participating countries, to determine the most effective individual and collective means of protecting their interests, to ensure the stability of oil prices on world markets, as well as the sustainability of their income. The special role of OPEC in the world economy is explained by the fact that its member countries have more than 2/3 of the world's oil reserves and 2/5 of the world's oil reserves. natural gas, provide a significant part of their production and especially exports. In addition to OPEC, there is also the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), which includes 11 countries, but in a different composition.

It remains to add that from 1949 to 1991, the integration grouping of ten socialist countries, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), played a prominent role in the world economic arena. It contributed to the acceleration of the economic, scientific and technological progress of these countries and the development of their productive forces. With the active participation of the Council, dozens of "new buildings of integration" were created in them, which had a great impact on the territorial structure of their economy. Nevertheless, in the new political and economic situation that developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the CMEA actually outlived itself and was abolished. However, this “landslide” disintegration also had negative consequences, causing a break in economic ties that had been established for 40 years.

With the formation of the Commonwealth Independent States more than 30 coordinating bodies were formed, including the Council of Heads of State, the Council of Heads of Government, the Economic Court, the Inter-Parliamentary Assembly, 16 interstate and intergovernmental councils, committees and commissions for sectoral cooperation. Based on this, during the 1990s. the CIS countries have made efforts to establish new integration ties. Back in 1993, the Economic Union of the CIS countries was concluded. However, its effectiveness turned out to be relatively low due to the already significant political, economic and other differences between countries. Smaller regional associations within the CIS turned out to be more stable and viable.

28. Demographic policy and examples of its implementation in the countries of the world. (Buravtseva)

Demographic policy is the management of population reproduction. Nowadays, most countries of the world seek to manage the reproduction of the population by pursuing a state demographic policy. Demographic policy is an integral part of the overall socio-economic policy, it includes a system of goals and means to achieve them.

* covers the following areas life of society:

1) impact on the reproduction of the population;

2) impact on the process of socialization of the younger generations;

3) regulation of labor market and labor force reserves;

4) regulation of migration and the territorial structure of the indigenous and alien population, etc.

Objects demographic policy may be the population of the country as a whole or individual regions, socio-demographic groups, population cohorts, families of certain types or stages of the life cycle.

Goals demographic policy is usually reduced to the formation of a desirable mode of population reproduction in the long term, maintaining or changing trends in the dynamics of the population size and structure, fertility, mortality, family composition, resettlement, internal and external migration, qualitative characteristics of the population (i.e. achieving demographic optimum).

The main directions of demographic policy include: creating conditions for combining parental responsibilities with active professional activities, reducing morbidity and mortality, increasing life expectancy, improving the quality characteristics of the population, regulating migration processes, urbanization and resettlement of the country, state assistance to families with children, social support for the disabled, the elderly and the disabled, etc. .P. These directions must be coordinated with such important areas of social policy as employment, income regulation, education and health care, vocational training, and social security.

Demographic policy measures:

economic measures :

paid holidays; various benefits at the birth of a child, often depending on their number

the age and condition of the family are assessed on a progressive scale

loans, credits, tax and housing benefits - to increase the birth rate

benefits for small families - to reduce the birth rate

administrative measures :

legal acts regulating the age of marriage, divorce, attitudes towards abortion and contraception, property status

mothers and children in the event of a marriage breakdown, the work regime of working women

educational and promotional measures:

formation of public opinion, norms and standards of demographic behavior

determination of attitude to religious norms, traditions and customs

family planning policy

sex education for young people

publicity on sexual matters

Examples:

In the countries of the modern world, there are two types demographic policy, diametrically opposed in their attitude to childbearing: stimulating and restraining fertility.

demographic policy is aimed at increasing natural population growth. (The demographic policy of stimulating the birth rate is carried out mainly with the help of economic measures, such as lump-sum loans to newlyweds, benefits for the birth of each child, monthly allowances for children, paid vacations, etc.). Country examples pursuing an active demographic policy can serve as France or Japan. Russia early XXI century also applies to countries where they implement a policy of stimulating the birth rate.

Most countries second type carry out a demographic policy aimed at reducing the natural increase of the population. These are countries with a large population that are actively developing economically. The most striking example in this respect are the two most big countries peace - China and India.

Implementation:

The demographic situation in the Urals and in Sverdlovsk region reflects the main trends typical for the Russian Federation. The region, as well as the entire country, was characterized by an increase in mortality and a decrease in the birth rate in the 1990s. of the last century, a surge in drug addiction, especially in young age cohorts at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries; improvement in the demographic situation in the first decade of the XXI in.

Below are the main points of this Concept.

*Overcoming poverty;

*Prevention of morbidity and premature mortality from malignant diseases;

*Prevention of complications of pregnancy and childbirth, improvement of women's reproductive health;

* Decreased mortality and morbidity among the child population;

* Decrease in mortality and morbidity among the population living in ecologically unfavorable territories;

*Improvement of the condition of the working population;

* Reducing the adverse impact of the environment on the health of the population, improving the nutrition of the population and preventing microelementoses and iodine deficiency;

*Prevention of premature mortality and morbidity of the population due to environmental pollution;

*Ensuring activities to improve the sanitary and epidemiological situation in the Sverdlovsk region;

*Ensuring the state-guaranteed level of social protection of the population;

Reforming the pension policy of the Russian Federation;

* Reorientation of social policy towards the family, ensuring the rights and social guarantees for the family, women, children, youth;

*Preservation of the educational potential of the population;

*Reduction of citizens subject to charity, development of charity and public charity;

* Ensuring the availability of improving the living conditions of the population;

*Preservation of the cultural potential of the population of the Sverdlovsk region, development of culture and art on the territory of the *Sverdlovsk region; professional artistic creativity;

*Folk art, cultural and leisure activities, libraries of the Sverdlovsk region; support of national cultures;

*Cultural heritage of the Sverdlovsk region;

*Art education; support for young talents;

*Strengthening the material and technical base of cultural institutions;

*Ensuring the availability of culture for the population of district and rural settlements;

*Activation of youth policy;

*Improvement of working conditions and labor protection;

* Increasing the level and living conditions of the population;

* Improving the system of promoting employment of the population;

* Development and improvement of social partnership in order to protect labor and social rights and guarantees of employees;

Improvement of the ecological situation;

* Preservation and development of the physical potential of the population;

*Formation of attitudes of tolerant consciousness and prevention of extremism in the Sverdlovsk region;

* Stabilization of the crime situation; strengthening road safety, reducing accidents on the roads;

* Stabilization of juvenile delinquency.

29. World fuel and energy complex and its regional specifics. (Buravtseva)

The fuel and energy complex (FEC) of the Russian Federation is a complex system - a set of industries, processes, material devices for the extraction of fuel and energy resources (FER), their transformation, transportation, distribution and consumption of both primary FER and converted types of energy carriers. This applies to thermal and electrical energy.

The fuel and energy complex includes interacting and interdependent subsystems: the fuel industry (coal, oil, gas, shale, peat) - the mining subsystem and the electric power industry, which converts fuel and energy resources into energy carriers. These subsystems are closely connected with power engineering, electrical engineering, nuclear industry and with all industries that consume fuel and energy. Through hydropower, the fuel and energy complex is connected with the country's water management.

The fuel and energy complex is the most important structural component of the Russian economy, one of key factors the growth of labor productivity, the vital activity of the productive forces and the population of the country. It produces about 30% industrial products Russia, has a significant impact on the formation of the country's budget, provides approximately 50% of its export potential. The fixed assets of the fuel and energy complex make up one third of the country's production assets.

The fuel industry includes coal, gas, and oil industries that provide the extraction of mineral fuel, the main source of energy in the electric power industry, and technological raw materials in industry (coal-chemical, petrochemical, and gas-chemical industries). The share of the fuel industry in the industrial and production fixed assets of the fuel and energy complex is about 60%

30. Metallurgical complex of the world and its regional specificity. (Grigoryan)

The metallurgical complex includes ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, covering all stages of technological processes: from the extraction and enrichment of raw materials to the production of finished products in the form of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and their alloys. The metallurgical complex is an interdependent combination of the following technological processes:
extraction and preparation of raw materials for processing (extraction, enrichment, agglomeration, obtaining the necessary concentrates, etc.);
· metallurgical processing - the main technological process with the production of cast iron, steel, rolled ferrous and non-ferrous metals, pipes, etc.;
production of alloys;
· Disposal of waste from the main production and obtaining secondary products from them.
Depending on the combination of these technological processes, the following types of production in the metallurgical complex are distinguished:
full-cycle production, represented, as a rule, by plants in which all the above stages operate simultaneously technological process;
part-time production - these are enterprises in which not all stages of the technological process are carried out, for example, in the ferrous metallurgy only steel and rolled products are produced, but there is no production of cast iron or only rolled products are produced. The incomplete cycle also includes electrothermy of ferroalloys, electrometallurgy, etc.
Enterprises of incomplete cycle, or "small metallurgy" are called conversion enterprises, they are represented as separate units for the production of foundry iron, steel or rolled products as part of large machine-building enterprises of the country.
The metallurgical complex is the basis of the industry. It is the foundation of mechanical engineering, which, together with the electric power industry and the chemical industry, ensures the development of scientific and technological progress at all levels. National economy countries. Metallurgy is one of the basic sectors of the national economy and is characterized by high material and capital intensity of production. The share of ferrous and non-ferrous metals accounts for more than 90% of the total volume of structural materials used in Russian engineering. In the total volume of transportation in the Russian Federation, metallurgical cargo accounts for over 35% of the total cargo turnover. For the needs of metallurgy, 14% of fuel and 16% of electricity are consumed, i.e. 25% of these resources are expended in industry.
The state and development of the metallurgical industry ultimately determine the level of scientific and technological progress in all sectors of the national economy. The metallurgical complex is characterized by concentration and combination of production.
The specifics of the metallurgical complex are the scale of production and the complexity of the technological cycle that are incomparable with other industries. For the production of many types of products, 15-18 redistributions are necessary, starting from the extraction of ore and other types of raw materials. At the same time, conversion enterprises have close ties with each other not only within Russia, but also across the Commonwealth countries. So, in the production of titanium and titanium rolled products, a stable interstate cooperation of enterprises from Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and Tajikistan has developed.
The complex-forming and district-forming significance of the metallurgical complex in the territorial structure of the national economy of Russia is exceptionally great. Modern large enterprises of the metallurgical complex, by the nature of internal technological relations, are Metallurgical and Energy Chemical Combines. In addition to the main production, metallurgical enterprises create production based on the utilization of various secondary resources of raw materials and materials (sulfuric acid production, heavy organic synthesis for the production of benzene, ammonia and other chemical products, production building materials- cement, block products, as well as phosphate and nitrogen fertilizers, etc.). The most common satellites of metallurgical enterprises are: thermal power industry, metal-intensive engineering (metallurgical and mining equipment, heavy machine tool building), production of metal structures, hardware.

31. World chemical-forest complex and its regional specificity. (Grigoryan)
The chemical-forest complex combines the chemical and timber industries.
Chemical industry. AT chemical industry There are three major branches: mining and chemical, basic chemistry and chemistry of organic synthesis.
The mining and chemical industry is the extraction of chemical raw materials: sulfur, potassium salts, apatites, phosphorites, etc. Basic (inorganic) chemistry specializes in the production of mineral fertilizers, acids, soda, etc. The chemistry of organic synthesis combines the production of synthetic resins and plastics, synthetic rubber, chemical fibers and other products.
In addition, the chemical industry includes pharmaceutical, microbiological, photochemical industries, household chemicals, etc.
The main factors influencing the location of chemical industries are raw materials, fuel and energy, water, consumer.
Under the influence of the raw material factor, enterprises of the mining and chemical industry (the main areas of its development are Ural and Northern), as well as many branches of basic chemistry (the production of potash fertilizers, soda ash, etc.) are placed. The fuel and energy factor affects the location of enterprises for the production of synthetic rubber, chemical fibers, etc. In many branches of the chemical industry, water consumption is high. This factor, for example, is one of the determining factors in the production of chemical fibers.
There are four major chemical industry bases in Russia.
North European. Rich reserves of apatites are concentrated here (Kola Peninsula, Khibiny) - raw materials for the production
phosphate fertilizers, as well as oil, gas, coal and timber, which create an opportunity for the development of organic chemistry.
Central - processes mainly imported raw materials and produces virtually all types of chemical products.
Volga-Urshskaya - was formed on its own resources of potash salts, sulfur, oil, gas, etc. There are large chemical complexes - Solikamsko-Bereznikovsky, Ufimsko-Salavatsky, Samara, etc.
Siberian - very promising in terms of reserves and diversity of resources. The petrochemical industry (Angarsk, Tomsk, Omsk, Tobolsk), the chemical complex of Kuzbass, etc., have received significant development.
Of the subjects of the Federation, which are major producers of various chemical products, one should name Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Moscow, Moscow, Samara, Perm regions.
In terms of annual production of certain types of products of the chemical industry, Russia occupies a very modest position in the world. Thus, the production of chemical fibers and threads is 135 thousand tons (in the USA over 4 million tons, China - more than 3 million tons), synthetic resins and plastics - 2.2 million tons (in the USA - over 30 million tons, Japan - about 15 million tons), etc.
Timber industry. The forest industry includes logging, woodworking, pulp and paper and wood chemical industries.
The logging industry carries out harvesting, primary processing and export of timber. The main logging areas are Northern, East Siberian and Ural.
The woodworking industry includes sawmilling, plywood, chipboard and fibreboard production, furniture production, standard house building, match production, etc.
The pulp and paper industry produces pulp, paper, cardboard and products from them.
The wood chemical industry produces varnishes, rosin, turpentine, ethyl alcohol, linoleum, etc.
The raw material factor affects the location of logging enterprises and a number of woodworking industries (for example, the production of plywood).
The water factor especially affects the location of pulp production.
The furniture industry is primarily focused on the consumer.
The timber industry is developed in Irkutsk, Arkhangelsk, Perm regions, Krasnoyarsk Territory, Republics of Karelia, Komi.
In general, the volumes of production in the forest industry during the 99s were reduced and in last years were: commercial timber harvesting - 70-75 million m 3 per year (in the USA about 400 million m 3), sawn timber production - 18-20 million m 3 (in the USA about 100 million m 3), paper and cardboard production - 3, 5-4 million tons (in the USA about 80 million tons).

32. World engineering and its regional specifics. (Kulakova)

SME develops in two directions - production and territorial. In turn, the production direction is divided into intersectoral, intrasectoral specialization and specialization within individual enterprises(firms, associations). In the territorial aspect, SME involves the specialization of individual countries, their groups and regions in the production of certain products and their parts for the world market.

Historically, SMEs have shifted from intersectoral to intrasectoral. Initially, SME was based on the general division of labor and led to the international exchange of products of one basic branch of material production (industry) for goods of another ( Agriculture). This form of SME dominated approximately until the 1970s and 1980s. 19th century

By the 30-40s. 20th century there has been a certain shift from intersectoral specialization based on a general division of labor to intersectoral specialization based on a particular division of labor. This type of SME involved the exchange of products from one complex industry (for example, mechanical engineering) for the products of another complex industry (for example, the chemical industry).

From the 50-60s. Intra-industry specialization is spreading within the boundaries of complex industries (machine-building, chemical, textile, food, etc.), and then within the framework of primary industries (machine-tool building, automotive, aircraft industry, chemical engineering, etc.).

In the 70-80s. Intra-industry SMEs came to the fore and the international exchange of similar goods with different consumer properties that it caused (for example, cars and trucks of various classes; mainframe computers for personal computers, leather shoes for those made from substitutes, etc.) came to the fore. Detail-by-node and technological specialization is developing especially widely: for example, now the share of parts and assemblies in foreign trade the developed capitalist countries account for more than 40% of machine-building products (against 20% in 1960).

In the 1980s and 1990s, large-scale economic, political, social processes tremendous transformative power, which have had and continue to increase their impact on world economy, its quality characteristics. Socio-political and economic processes cause significant shifts in the world economy, forming its new, more diverse and multivariate stages and ways of its development. Not only the world is changing, but also its understanding. Nowadays it is already quite difficult to draw a clear boundary, which quite recently divided it into opposite systems. In the world, especially in Europe, there has been such a drastic reshuffle of forces and a reassessment of values ​​that the positions and stereotypes that were formed in our country and abroad for decades, up to the 90s, regarding the problems of the world economy, SMEs and international economic relations, have become obsolete.

In the future, the production of economically developed countries will increasingly focus on external consumers, domestic demand - on imports. In developing countries, relatively rapid, mostly extensive, expansion of the domestic market is expected. Therefore, despite the expected rather high rates of increase in production in them, a relative decrease in the degree (but not the scale) of the involvement of developing countries in SMEs is possible.

The most important problem of an increasingly interdependent world is not the cooperation of various systems, but the interaction of structures at different levels. They are characterized not only by the degree of development, but also by the degree of involvement in SMEs and the world economy. A sign of the times is integration, and integration is universal, and not just international. There is an integration of capital, production, labor. The peculiarity of this process is that, having originated initially in Europe (European Economic Community - EEC, CMEA), in recent years it has covered new countries and regions. Take the Asia-Pacific Region (APR), which attracts attention mainly as the zone of the most dynamic economic development in the world.

Another powerful economic union is the North American Free Trade Area, which was proclaimed in August 1992 after two and a half years of negotiations between the US, Canada and Mexico. A single economic space is being formed with 360 million consumers and a total production of 7 trillion. Doll.

On a qualitatively new stage development leaves the European Union (former European Community) -- the EU. In accordance with the Single European Act, adopted by the EU member countries in 1992, the process of creating a single internal market for this association has been completed. Virtually all remaining barriers to the free movement of goods, services, capital and human resources have been eliminated. The remaining customs formalities in mutual trade are being canceled, the development and implementation of common European standards are being intensified, the last currency restrictions are being abolished, etc. to strengthen the economic positions of the EU in the world, their competitiveness.

In the transitional period that the whole world has entered, there is little understanding of the impossibility of living in conditions of confrontation any longer. It requires constructive creative thinking that meets the new realities. For many years, we ignored Western European (as, indeed, any other, except for socialist) integration. Disregarding the facts, however, only exacerbates the consequences for those who ignore or ignore them. We finally not only recognize the effectiveness of "foreign" integration processes, but also begin cooperation with the European Community (EU) and are ready to accept its help.

The integration of economic life in the world is proceeding in many increasingly multiplying directions. This is:

  • 1) the internationalization of productive forces through the widespread dissemination of the technological mode of production: through the exchange of means of production and technological knowledge, as well as in the form of international specialization and cooperation, linking economic units into integral production and consumer systems; through production cooperation, international movement of production resources; through the formation of a global material, information, organizational and economic infrastructure that ensures the implementation of international exchange.
  • 2) the manifestation of internationalization through SMEs.
  • 3) an increase in the scale and a qualitative change in the nature of traditional international trade materialized commodities, which is why it now has an immeasurably greater impact on the internationalization of economic life than it did in the 1920s and 1930s.
  • 4) the international movement of financial and production resources, which ensures the interweaving and interdependence of economic activities in different countries. This movement takes the form of an international loan or foreign investment.
  • 5) an increasingly important area of ​​international cooperation is the service sector, which is developing faster than the sphere of material production.
  • 6) the international exchange of scientific and technical knowledge is growing rapidly. The front of world science and technology is rapidly expanding. In combination with their rapid development, this leads to the fact that now no country alone is able to solve all issues of scientific and technical progress, and even more so to be a leader in all areas of development of science and technology.
  • 7) the scale of international labor migration is increasing, to which Russia and other states on the territory of the former USSR are beginning to join as exporters.
  • 8) along with the growing internationalization of the impact of production and consumption on the natural environment, there is a growing need for international cooperation aimed at solving global problems modernity (protection of the natural environment, exploration of the World Ocean, space, assistance to the starving population of developing countries, etc.).

Thus, modern world is rapidly moving towards a new, synthesized model of development. It is characterized not only by a qualitative renewal of the technological base of production, the widespread introduction of resources and energy-saving technologies, but also by fundamentally important shifts in the structure, content and nature of production and consumption processes. The world community is gradually overcoming the untenable complex of "struggle between the two systems". But the demolition of the bipolar model international relations revealed another most acute conflict in the world - between the central (North) and peripheral parts (South) in the structure of the world economy. The problem of survival makes necessary the organic integration of these two parts on the basis of their mutual adaptation and active connections.

There are several main indicators of the level of SMEs. The most common is the coefficient of the international division of labor, which shows the ratio of the country's share in world trade to the share of the same country in the national income or gross product of all countries of the world. With regard to a certain industry, the coefficient of the international division of labor is the result of the ratio of the country's share in world trade in the products of this industry and its share in the world production of this industry. An indicator greater than one indicates a higher, compared with the world average, involvement of a country or industry in SMEs, more high level international specialization.

A more complete and accurate picture of the various aspects of the participation of the industry of the country and its individual sectors in SMEs is provided by the following indicators:

coefficient of relative international specialization of industry and its branches, obtained by comparing the shares of the same goods in foreign trade (export or import) of individual countries and world trade (a coefficient greater than one indicates that the country specializes in the export or import of data goods);

share in the international trade turnover of the country of products, their components supplied to foreign markets or imported in accordance with agreements on SMEs;

export quota (share of exports) in industrial production in general and in the output of products by certain industries;

assortment (nomenclature) of goods exported and imported by the country.

The international geographical division of labor (IGDT) is the specialization of individual countries in the production of certain types of products and services intended for their export to the world market. It originated in antiquity, developing and becoming more complex as the productive forces developed, but embraced the whole world only with the emergence of the world economy.

The international division of labor is an integral part of the territorial division of labor, and its development is determined by a number of factors:

  • 1) differences in the geographical position of countries, forms of geographical location: central, peripheral, neighboring, coastal - have a significant impact on the specialization of individual countries, contributing to or hindering the development of certain types of industries and services;
  • 2) features of natural conditions and availability of natural resources. This is one of the most powerful factors in the specialization of the countries of the world at various stages of their development. As a rule, countries that are well off various types natural resources, specialize in material-intensive types of production. And, on the contrary, countries with a low degree of security are forced to give preference to non-material-intensive industries, focusing more on energy and material-saving technologies. At the same time, exceptions to these regularities are not uncommon, which is determined by the influence of other factors;
  • 3) Differences in the availability of labor resources are a potent factor in the international division of labor. Countries well provided with them have the necessary prerequisites for the development of labor-intensive sectors of the economy and vice versa. True, in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution, it is not the absolute indicators of security that are most significant, but the quality of labor resources - the educational and qualification level. An exceptionally large role in the specialization of individual countries and regions is played by historically formed work skills;
  • 4) very big influence the international division of labor is influenced by differences in the level of socio-economic development of the countries of the world, in particular, the state of science and research base, technical and technological equipment, previously created material base, infrastructure, etc. It is quite natural that the underdeveloped countries do not have the necessary financial, scientific, labor and material prerequisites for the independent development of modern high-tech sectors of the national economy, and even more so for specializing in them.

Absolutely all countries of the world must participate in the international division of labor. None of them can afford to become isolated in their domestic market, even such economic giants as the USA, Russia, China, which are well endowed with their own natural and labor resources and have a difficult industry structure economy and a capacious domestic market for the sale of manufactured products. This would be irrational and economically unjustified, as it would lead to significant economic losses. After all, participation in the international division of labor gives a direct economic effect, which is formed due to the difference in costs in the production of certain types of products and in the provision of services in different countries of the world.

In addition, participation in the international geographical division of labor is dictated not only by the economic benefits received, but also by the need to strengthen political ties between countries, saturate the domestic market with individual goods and services, and so on.

The degree of participation of individual countries of the world in the international division of labor is ambiguous, which is determined by differences in the provision of their own natural resources, the level of economic development, the capacity of the domestic market and other factors. The countries with the largest economic potential, which stand out sharply in general by the scale of their participation in the international division of labor, as a rule, are characterized by a lower degree of involvement in the IGR in comparison with small countries.

Very significant differences are observed between individual countries and their groups in the current international specialization of the economy (see Appendix 3). So, if economically developed countries specialize mainly in the manufacturing industry, primarily in its high-tech industries that determine modern scientific and technological progress, then developing countries mainly specialize in the mining industry, the agricultural sector or old, traditional manufacturing industries. There are also exceptions. Thus, some highly developed countries, such as Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, are widely known in the world market for the products of the mining industry or the agricultural sector. At the same time, NIS stand out in the international division of labor in a number of modern sectors of the national economy, in particular, the production and export of electronic products, semiconductors, etc.

International relations are growing and expanding, contributing to the strengthening of peace and mutual understanding among peoples. The MGRT has led to the need for countries to participate in international economic relations. The times of national isolation and economic isolation of states are a thing of the past.

Those countries that are highly dependent on world economic relations, deeply “rooted” in them, are called countries with an open economy. The degree of openness is determined by the export quota - the share of exports in the creation of the country's GDP. This quota depends not only on the degree of economic development, but also on the size of the domestic market. So, in Singapore the export quota is 70%, in Belgium and the Netherlands - 55-60%, in the USA - 10%.

International specialization production is the concentration of production of homogeneous products within one country or a small number of countries in order to create highly efficient production.

The international specialization of production is developing in two directions - territorial and production.

Territorial international specialization of production involves the specialization of individual countries and regions (on an international scale) in the production of certain finished products and their parts for the world market.

The production line is divided into:

1. Intersectoral specialization;

2. Intra-industry specialization;

3. Specialization of individual enterprises.

Intersectoral specialization involves the concentration in individual countries of certain industries in the absence of a number of other industries. Previously, international specialization developed almost exclusively as an intersectoral one. This type of international specialization is associated with the insufficient development of productive forces in many countries, therefore their place in the international division of labor was determined by the presence of certain natural resources - mineral or agricultural raw materials, the possibility of growing certain food crops.

Intersectoral specialization is also becoming characteristic of developed countries, especially relatively small territories and populations. Their specialization is also partly related to the geographical environment and natural conditions, but it is more progressive and is characterized by the production of industrial products and semi-finished products.

Indicators of the degree of involvement of individual industries in international specialization can be determined in two ways.

First, by calculating the degree of participation of a given industry in international specialization in comparison with other sectors of the national economy. This indicator can be calculated on the basis of a comparison of export quotas (the ratio of exports to production volume) of individual industries.



Secondly, by identifying the role of the country's industry in the world exports of the relevant products. In this case, the coefficient of relative export specialization (CES) can be defined as the ratio of the share of a product (the totality of goods in an industry) in the country's exports to the share of goods (analogues) in world exports.

More effective for the country is specialization in advanced (high-tech) manufacturing industries, whose products are highly valued and less subject to market fluctuations.

The scientific and technological revolution contributed to the development of a new stage in MRI - the emergence and development of intra-industry specialization. It is associated with industries based not so much on the use of natural resources as on the results of scientific and technical activities, and covers mainly industrialized countries, although TNCs are drawn into this specialization and developing countries.

Under the present conditions, the deepening of international specialization proceeds along the lines of intra-industry specialization and is a necessary condition for the development of the latest industries in the conditions of scientific and technological progress.

One of the areas of intra-industry specialization is subject specialization, which consists in concentrating the production of certain types of products of a given industry in a particular country.

Products that are the subject of multilateral agreements, i.e. products manufactured in one or more countries to meet the needs of the world market are internationally specialized products. The greater the share in the composition of exported products is occupied by products of advanced manufacturing industries, the more progressive the country's SMEs are. And vice versa, a clear predominance of extractive industries and agriculture in exports is evidence of the country's passive role in the MRT, the relative backwardness of its SMEs.

Closer links between manufacturers different countries arise on the basis of detailed specialization. It is a concentration at the enterprises of a particular country, the production of components, assemblies or parts that do not have an independent application, but are used as parts of the final product. This kind of international specialization was developed in the production of mass-produced products.

Technological specialization, which consists in the performance of certain types of work at enterprises, is developing, although not yet very significant on an international scale. This type of specialization can include the manufacture of forgings, castings, stampings, billets, etc. not only for the domestic, but also for the foreign market.

The deeper international specialization and, accordingly, production cooperation between enterprises of different countries, the more international the nature of the production process becomes.

The objective basis for the formation of the world economy is the international division of labor, accompanied by the specialization of firms, countries in the production of certain types of products or their parts, as well as the cooperation of producers for the joint production of products.

Development factors of the international division of the pile:

  • - natural and climatic differences;
  • - provision of the country with minerals, arable land;
  • - geographical position countries in relation to sales markets, transport routes;
  • - professional orientation of the population, its qualification training;
  • - the size of the territory of the country and the size of its population;
  • - the optimal level of the size of enterprises (concentration of production).

The international division of labor is realized through interstate specialization and cooperative production.

Production specialization is a process of separating individual countries, industries and industries that manufacture specific types of products or carry out certain stages of the production process for the manufacture of a product. Specialization is based on the division of labor and the concentration of production activities, aimed at the mass production of a certain range of products or the performance of certain technological operations.

Purpose of Specialization- reduction of production costs due to the following advantages of specialized enterprises:

  • - specialization serves as the basis for automation and mechanization of production;
  • - more opportunities for the application and effective use of productive equipment and technology, obtaining more High Quality products.

With specialization, a country produces those types of goods where it has a comparative advantage. International specialization leads to an increase in total production, an increase in the exchange of products of labor between countries, and an increase in welfare.

There are the following forms of international specialization of production.

  • 1. Subject Specialization- concentration of output of homogeneous products intended for use in various industries the national economy and the population (machine, plane, tractor, car, TV, shoes, etc.). It underlies the formation of industries specialized in the production of a certain range of commercial products.
  • 2. Detailed Specialization- this is an independent production of individual parts, assemblies, assemblies, which are used to complete the main type of product at subject-specialized enterprises. On its basis, specialized production of products of intersectoral application arises on the basis of the interchangeability of individual components and parts of various equipment (bearing, motor enterprises, for the manufacture of electrical equipment, fasteners, etc.).
  • 3. Technological (or stage) specialization provides for the allocation of independent industries for the implementation of certain stages of the technological process or operations (foundry, forging, assembly enterprises, sugar, tobacco packaging enterprises, etc.) in one country with their subsequent completion in other countries.

Specific forms of specialization depend on the characteristics and level of development of each branch of the national economy in a given country. The level of participation of the country in international specialization is determined by the following indicators.

1. Relative export specialization coefficient (COES):

where Yo is the share of industry goods in the country's exports; Ym is the share of similar goods in world exports.

2. Export quota in the production of the industry, which is determined by the ratio of the value of exported products to the gross national product of the industry.

The level of production specialization is the highest in the small states of Western Europe: Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Sweden.

Production cooperation- this is the process of interaction between enterprises and their divisions, jointly manufacturing products. International cooperation is associated with international specialization and is a stable production relationship between separate producers in the joint production. Cooperation is based on long-term and rational production links between specialized concrete enterprises, independent of each other. The supplier must fulfill the specific requirements of this consumer. With international cooperation, the countries of the world economy supplement each other's production capacities by creating common (joint) enterprises, implementing joint programs, mutual deliveries of goods under license agreements, etc.

Specialization and cooperation of production are two sides of the same process. An increase in the level of specialization inevitably leads to an increase in the level of cooperation.

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