New ways to solve environmental problems clean shores. Is it possible to solve modern environmental problems on a global scale?

Global Environmental Issue #1: Air Pollution

Every day, the average person inhales about 20,000 liters of air, which contains, in addition to vital oxygen, a whole list of harmful suspended particles and gases. Air pollutants are conditionally divided into 2 types: natural and anthropogenic. The latter prevail.

Things are not going well with the chemical industry in the best way. Factories emit such harmful substances as dust, oil ash, various chemical compounds, nitrogen oxides and much more. Air measurements showed the catastrophic state of the atmospheric layer, polluted air causes many chronic diseases.

Atmospheric pollution is an environmental problem, familiar to the inhabitants of absolutely all corners of the earth. It is especially acutely felt by representatives of cities where ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, energy, chemical, petrochemical, construction and pulp and paper industries operate. In some cities, the atmosphere is also heavily poisoned by vehicles and boilers. These are all examples of anthropogenic air pollution.

As for the natural sources of chemical elements that pollute the atmosphere, they include forest fires, volcanic eruptions, wind erosion (dispersal of soil and rock particles), the spread of pollen, evaporation of organic compounds and natural radiation.

Consequences of atmospheric pollution

Atmospheric air pollution adversely affects human health, contributing to the development of heart and lung diseases (in particular, bronchitis). In addition, atmospheric pollutants such as ozone, nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide destroy natural ecosystems, destroying plants and causing the death of living creatures (particularly river fish).

The global environmental problem of atmospheric pollution, according to scientists and government officials, can be solved in the following ways:

limiting population growth;

reduction in energy use;

improving energy efficiency;

waste reduction;

transition to environmentally friendly renewable energy sources;

air purification in highly polluted areas.

Global Environmental Issue #2: Ozone Depletion

The ozone layer is a thin strip of the stratosphere that protects all life on Earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.

Causes of the environmental problem

Back in the 1970s. environmentalists have discovered that the ozone layer is destroyed by exposure to chlorofluorocarbons. These chemicals are found in coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners, as well as solvents, aerosols/sprays, and fire extinguishers. To a lesser extent, other anthropogenic influences also contribute to the thinning of the ozone layer: space rockets, flights of jet planes in the high layers of the atmosphere, testing of nuclear weapons, reduction of the planet's forest lands. There is also a theory that global warming contributes to the thinning of the ozone layer.

Consequences of ozone depletion

As a result of the destruction of the ozone layer, ultraviolet radiation passes unhindered through the atmosphere and reaches the earth's surface. Exposure to direct UV rays adversely affects people's health by weakening the immune system and causing diseases such as skin cancer and cataracts.

World Environmental Issue #3: Global Warming

Like the glass walls of a greenhouse, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and water vapor allow the sun to heat our planet and at the same time prevent infrared radiation reflected from the earth's surface from escaping into space. All these gases are responsible for maintaining the temperature acceptable for life on earth. However, an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxide and water vapor in the atmosphere is another global environmental problem, called global warming (or the greenhouse effect).

Causes of global warming

During the 20th century average temperature on the ground increased by 0.5 - 1? C. The main cause of global warming is considered to be an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to an increase in the volume of fossil fuels burned by people (coal, oil and their derivatives). However, according to the statement Alexey Kokorin, head of climate programs World Fund wildlife (WWF) Russia, “the largest amount of greenhouse gases is generated by the operation of power plants and methane emissions during the extraction and delivery of energy resources, while road transport or the burning of associated petroleum gas in flaring causes relatively little environmental damage”.

Other prerequisites for global warming are overpopulation of the planet, deforestation, ozone depletion and littering. However, not all ecologists place the responsibility for the increase in average annual temperatures entirely on anthropogenic activities. Some believe that the natural increase in the abundance of oceanic plankton also contributes to global warming, leading to an increase in the concentration of the same carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Consequences of the greenhouse effect

If the temperature during the 21st century increases by another 1 ? C - 3.5 ? C, as scientists predict, the consequences will be very sad:

the level of the world ocean will rise (due to the melting of polar ice), the number of droughts will increase and the process of land desertification will intensify,

many species of plants and animals adapted to existence in a narrow range of temperatures and humidity will disappear,

hurricanes will increase.

Solving an environmental problem

To slow down the process of global warming, according to environmentalists, the following measures will help:

rising prices for fossil fuels,

replacement of fossil fuels with environmentally friendly ones (solar energy, wind energy and sea currents),

development of energy-saving and waste-free technologies,

taxation of emissions into the environment,

minimization of methane losses during its production, transportation through pipelines, distribution in cities and villages and use at heat supply stations and power plants,

introduction of carbon dioxide absorption and binding technologies,

tree planting,

reduction in family size

environmental education,

application of phytomelioration in agriculture.

Global Environmental Issue #4: Acid Rain

Acid rain containing fuel combustion products is also a hazard to environment, human health and even for the integrity of architectural monuments.

The effects of acid rain

Solutions of sulfuric and nitric acids, aluminum and cobalt compounds contained in polluted precipitation and fog pollute the soil and water bodies, adversely affect vegetation, causing dry tops of deciduous trees and oppressing conifers. Due to acid rain, crop yields are falling, people are drinking water enriched with toxic metals (mercury, cadmium, lead), marble architectural monuments are turning into gypsum and eroding.

Solving an environmental problem

In order to save nature and architecture from acid rain, it is necessary to minimize the emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere.

Global Environmental Issue #5: Soil Pollution

Every year people pollute the environment with 85 billion tons of waste. Among them are solid and liquid waste from industrial enterprises and transport, agricultural waste (including pesticides), household waste and atmospheric fallout of harmful substances.

The main role in soil pollution is played by such components of industrial waste as heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, thallium, bismuth, tin, vanadium, antimony), pesticides and petroleum products. From the soil, they penetrate into plants and water, even spring water. In a chain, toxic metals enter the human body and are not always quickly and completely removed from it. Some of them tend to accumulate over many years, provoking the development of serious diseases.

Global Environmental Issue #6: Water Pollution

Pollution of the oceans, underground and surface waters of land is a global environmental problem, the responsibility for which lies entirely with man.

Causes of the environmental problem

The main pollutants of the hydrosphere today are oil and oil products. These substances penetrate into the waters of the oceans as a result of the collapse of tankers and regular discharges of wastewater from industrial enterprises.

In addition to anthropogenic oil products, industrial and domestic facilities pollute the hydrosphere with heavy metals and complex organic compounds. Leaders in poisoning the waters of the oceans minerals and biogenic elements are agriculture and the food industry.

The hydrosphere does not bypass such a global environmental problem as radioactive contamination. The prerequisite for its formation was the disposal of radioactive waste in the waters of the oceans. From the 1949s to the 1970s, many powers with a developed nuclear industry and atomic fleet purposefully stockpiled harmful radioactive substances into the seas and oceans. In the places of burial of radioactive containers, the level of cesium often goes off scale even today. But "underwater polygons" are not the only radioactive source of pollution of the hydrosphere. The waters of the seas and oceans are enriched with radiation as a result of underwater and surface nuclear explosions.

Consequences of radioactive contamination of water

Oil pollution of the hydrosphere leads to the destruction of the natural habitat of hundreds of representatives of oceanic flora and fauna, the death of plankton, seabirds and mammals. For human health, the poisoning of the waters of the oceans also poses a serious danger: fish and other seafood “infected” with radiation can easily get on the table.

The main types of environmental pollution. The main ways of solving environmental problems. environmental policy.

Environmental pollution is understood as an undesirable change in its properties as a result of anthropogenic intake of various substances and compounds. This pollution leads to harmful effects on the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, buildings, structures and materials, and ultimately on the person himself. The main source of such pollution is the return to nature of a huge amount of waste that is formed in the process of production and consumption of human society. Especially dangerous is the entry into the environment of chemicals synthesized by mankind and not previously existing in nature.

Pollution of the hydrosphere occurs primarily as a result of wastewater discharges into rivers, lakes and seas. Their total volume reaches 1 thousand km3 per year. Their neutralization by dilution requires about 10 thousand km3 of pure water. The most polluted rivers are the Rhine, Danube, Seine, Tiber, Mississippi, Ohio, Volga, Dnieper, Don, Dniester, Nile, Ganges.

The pollution of the World Ocean is growing, into which about 100 million tons of waste fall. The most polluted seas are the Mediterranean, Northern, Irish, Baltic, Black, Azov, Japanese, Javanese and Caribbean. Oil pollution causes a lot of damage. 3-4 million tons of oil and oil products enter the World Ocean annually, and according to some estimates, much more (up to 16 million tons). It is believed that 1/3 of the surface of the World Ocean is covered with an oily film. The oil pollution of the Northern, Mediterranean, caribbean, Persian, Mexican gulfs.

Atmospheric pollution occurs primarily as a result of the combustion of mineral fuels. The main air pollutants are oxides of carbon, sulfur and nitrogen. The annual release of fatty gas into the atmosphere is estimated at 100-150 million tons. Its emissions are associated with the formation of so-called (acidic rains, which cause great harm to the natural and animal world, reduce productivity, destroy structures, monuments of architects, adversely affect on the health of people. North America. For example, in Scandinavia, which receives acid precipitation mainly from Great Britain and Germany, salmon, trout and other fish have disappeared from 20 thousand lakes. In many countries Western Europe and in some regions of Russia, forest lands are dying due to acid rain.

At present, environmental pollution has reached such a level that urgent measures must be taken. There are three main ways to solve environmental problems. The first one is the creation of treatment facilities, the use of low-sulfur fuel, the destruction and processing of waste, the construction of chimneys 200-300 m or more high, land reclamation, etc. The second direction of overcoming environmental pollution is the development and application of environmental ("clean") production technology, the development of recycling methods of water supply, etc. This path has special meaning, as it not only reduces, but prevents environmental pollution. The third way is a deeply thought out, rational placement of "dirty" industries that have an adverse impact on the environment.

Environmental policy

Environmental pollution and irrational nature management natural resources hinder the development of production and threaten people's lives. Therefore, a mass movement of the public in defense of nature began. Most of the economically developed countries and some developing countries have begun to pursue a state environmental policy. Environmental laws have been passed, government bodies for environmental protection. As a result, in the 80s. environmental pollution in some regions of the world is gradually decreasing. However, in most countries the environmental situation continues to be tense. Not enough effort was made to implement environmental policy selected countries. The efforts of the entire world community are needed. The UN system has a special program for the immersive environment (UNEP), etc. Geographers from many countries, including Russia, take part in this work.

The state budget. Sources of income and expenditure items of the state. State budget deficit and sources of its coverage.

The state budget is the balance of government revenues and expenditures for a certain period of time (usually a year), which is the main financial plan of the country, which, after its adoption by the legislature (parliament, State Duma, Congress, etc.) acquires the force of law and is binding.

In the performance of its functions, the state bears numerous costs. By purpose, state expenditures can be divided into expenditures:

 for political purposes: 1) spending on national defense and

From a macroeconomic point of view, all government spending is divided into:

Government purchases of goods and services (their cost is included in GDP);

Transfers (their value is not included in GDP);

Interest payments on government bonds (public debt servicing)

The main sources of state revenue are:

Taxes (including social security contributions)

Profits of state enterprises

Seigniorage (income from the issue of money)

Proceeds from privatization

Types of states of the state budget

1) when budget revenues exceed expenditures (T > G), budget balance

positive, which corresponds surplus (or surplus)) state budget

2) when incomes are equal to expenses (G = T), budget balance is zero,

those. the budget is balanced

turnover on a huge scale of "shadow" capital;

a significant cause of the budget deficit are huge

unproductive expenses, postscripts, theft, etc.

Of course, the budget deficit refers to "negative economic

topics are integral elements of the economic system. And what's more, without

them the economic system loses its ability to self-propulsion and development.

It should be noted that a budget deficit-free does not mean health

economy.

AT economic theory distinguish several conceptual approaches to

problem of budget deficit and budget policy.

The first concept is based on the fact that the budget should be annually

balanced. A little earlier this was considered the goal financial policy. But

Upon closer examination of this problem, it became clear what

the state of the budget eliminates or significantly reduces efficiency

fiscal policy of the state, which has a counter-cyclical, stabilizing

orientation. For example, suppose there is a long period

unemployment. Incomes of the population are falling; tax revenue automatically

are shrinking. In an effort to balance the budget at all costs,

the government should either increase taxes or cut government

costs, or a combination of one with the other. But the consequences of these actions will be

further reduction in aggregate demand. Another example shows how

the desire to balance the budget can increase inflation. In conditions

inflation, with an increase in money income, automatically increase

tax revenues. In order to prevent the excess of income over

spending, the government must: either lower tax rates or increase

government spending, or a combination of both. But the consequence of these

measures will increase inflation.

The second concept is based on the fact that the budget should be

balanced during the economic cycle, not annually. Such a concept

suggests that the government is countercyclical and

at the same time trying to balance the budget. The rationale behind this

the concept is very simple: in order to counter the recession, the government

reduces taxes and increases spending, i.e. deliberately causes a deficit

budget. During an inflationary period, the government raises taxes and

reduces government spending. Increasing budget revenue

which goes to cover the deficit that arose during the recession. So

Thus, the government is pursuing a positive counter-cyclical policy and

balancing the budget at the same time.

The main problem that arises in this concept is that recessions and

upswings in the business cycle may not be the same in depth and

duration. And in this case, the appearance of a large deficit in the period

a long and deep recession will not be covered by a small surplus

the budget of the short recovery period, therefore, there will be

cyclical budget deficit.

1. The third concept is the concept of functional finance, i.e. purpose

public finance is to ensure the balance of the economy,

rather than the budget, while achieving macroeconomic stability can

be accompanied by both a stable positive balance and a stable

Modern technogenic civilization, in addition to increasing the degree of domestic comfort, has led to a rapid deterioration of the environmental situation in the world. Over time, the ecology spoiled by civilization can lead to catastrophic consequences. Let us briefly consider the main global environmental problems.

Destruction of plant and animal species

The destruction and impoverishment of the gene pool is the biggest environmental problem in the world. American scientists have calculated that over the past 200 years, earthlings have lost 900,000 species of plants and animals.

On the territory of the former USSR, the gene pool has decreased by 10-12%. Today, the number of species on the planet is 10-20 million. The reduction in the number of species is due to the destruction of the natural habitat of plants and animals, the overuse of agricultural land, due to the existing one.

In the future, an even faster reduction in species diversity is predicted. Deforestation

The world's forests are dying out en masse. Firstly, due to cutting down for the use of wood in production; secondly, due to the destruction of the normal habitat of plants. The main threat to trees and other forest plants is acid rain, which is caused by the release of sulfur dioxide from power plants. These releases have the ability to travel long distances from the immediate release site. Over the past 20 years alone, earthlings have lost about 200 million hectares of valuable forest tracts. Of particular danger is the depletion of tropical forests, rightly considered the lungs of the planet.

Reduction of minerals

Today, the number of minerals is rapidly declining. Oil, slates, coal, peat were left to us as a legacy from the dead biospheres, which absorbed the energy of the sun. However, it should be remembered that about half of the oil produced by mankind has been pumped out of the bowels of the earth over the past 10–15 years. The extraction and sale of minerals has become a gold mine, and entrepreneurs do not care about the global environmental situation. Only the development of alternative projects can save earthlings from the loss of energy sources: the collection of energy from the sun, winds, sea tides, hot earth's bowels, and so on.

Problems of the world ocean

As you know, the world ocean occupies 2/3 of the planet's surface and supplies up to 1/6 of animal proteins that are eaten by the inhabitants of the Earth. About 70% of all oxygen is produced during phytoplankton photosynthesis.

Chemical pollution of the ocean is extremely dangerous, because it leads to the depletion of water and food resources, the violation of the oxygen balance in the atmosphere. During the 20th century, emissions into the world ocean of indecomposable synthetic substances, products of the chemical and military industries have greatly increased.

Air pollution

In the 60s, it was believed that atmospheric pollution was typical only for large cities and industrial centers. However, later it turned out that harmful emissions can spread over great distances. Air pollution is a global phenomenon. And the release of harmful chemicals in one country can lead to a total deterioration of the environment in another.

Acid rains appearing in the atmosphere cause damage to the forest, comparable to deforestation.

Destruction of the ozone layer

It is known that life on the planet is possible only because the ozone layer protects it from the deadly effects of ultraviolet radiation. If the amount of ozone continues to decrease, then humanity is threatened with at least an increase in the occurrence of skin cancer and eye damage. Ozone holes most often appear in the polar regions. The first such hole was discovered by a British station probe in Antarctica in 1982. At first, this fact of the occurrence of ozone holes in the cold polar regions was puzzling, but then it turned out that a significant part of the ozone layer is destroyed by aircraft rocket engines, spaceships, satellites.

Surface pollution and disfigurement of natural landscapes

A handful of soil, this skin of the earth, contains many microorganisms that ensure fertility.

A layer of soil 1 cm thick is formed for a century, but it can be destroyed in 1 field season.

And this, in turn, leads to the complete disfigurement of natural landscapes.