The geographic envelope is the subject of general geography. Methodological goals and objectives of the course "Geography"

Yulia Alexandrovna Gledko

General Geography: Study Guide

admitted

Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus as study guide for students of institutions of higher education in the specialties "Geography (by directions)", "Hydrometeorology", "Space and Aerocartography", "Geoecology"

Reviewers:

Department of Physical Geography of the Educational Institution "Belarusian State Pedagogical University named after M. Tank" (Associate Professor of the Department of Physical Geography Candidate of Geographical Sciences O. Yu. Panasyuk);

Dean of the Faculty of Natural Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Geography and Nature Conservation of the Educational Establishment "Mogilevsky State University named after A.A. Kuleshova, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor I.N. Sharukho

Introduction

General geography is a branch of geography that studies the patterns of structure, functioning, dynamics and evolution of the geographic envelope at different territorial levels: global, continental, zonal, regional, local. The role of general geography in the system of geographical sciences is unique. The concepts of geography (zonality, integrity, consistency, endogenous and exogenous origin of a number of landforms, etc.) play a leading role in the formation of hypotheses about the structure of the outer shells of other planets in the solar system, which determine programs for their research using space means. Most of the earth sciences are based on the basic concepts of geography about the relationships between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, vegetation and relief, land and oceans, and various natural zones.

General geography is the basis of geographical education, its foundation in the system of geographical sciences. The most important task of the discipline is the study of the geographic shell, its structure and spatial differentiation, the main geographical patterns. This task determines the theoretical content of the discipline. The most common for geography is the law of geographical zoning, therefore, in the course of general geography, first of all, the factors that form the geographical envelope and its main structural feature - horizontal (latitudinal) zoning are considered. The laws of integrity, evolution, cycles of matter and energy, rhythm are considered for all spheres of the geographical envelope, taking into account environmental conditions.

The concept of geography, which developed as a systemic doctrine of an integral object - a geographical shell - mainly during the 20th century, is currently acquiring an additional basis in the form of space geography, the study of the deep structure of the Earth, the physical geography of the World Ocean, planetology, evolutionary geography, research environment, its conservation for humanity and all biological diversity. In this regard, the direction of general geography has noticeably transformed - from the knowledge of fundamental geographical patterns to the study of "humanized" nature on this basis in order to optimize natural environment and management of processes, including those caused by human activity and its consequences, at the planetary level.

The modern direction of geoscience is the creation of a single integrated digital model of the geographic shell, similar to existing models of the climate system, oceans, groundwater, etc. The task is to model individual shells in order to gradually integrate them into a single planet model. The key to building this model, in contrast to modeling climate, oceans, glaciation, is the inclusion of human activity as the main force that changes the geographical shell and at the same time depends on the changes taking place in it. The prospect of creating such a model lies in the widespread use of computer technology, the development of geographic information systems of various profiles and purposes, the development of new principles and means of collecting, processing, storing and transmitting data. There is a need to increasingly attract new sources of information: aerospace surveys, automatic observations from ground and sea stations. The use of aerospace survey materials makes it possible to obtain new fundamental knowledge about the structure and development of the geographic envelope, to organize monitoring of geosystems of various ranks, to update the funds of topographic and thematic maps, and to create new cartographic documents of scientific and applied significance.

The ideas and models of geography that currently exist are most clearly manifested in the process of solving global problems that affect the interests of all mankind. Thus, the concepts of geography are associated with the problems of pollution of the atmosphere and hydrosphere, including the transition of local influences into global, structural and dynamic changes occurring in the lithosphere, violation of the regulatory function of biota, etc.

Thus, the range of theoretical and practical tasks facing geography is enormous: the study of the evolution of the geographic envelope of the Earth; study of the history of interaction between nature and society; analysis of spontaneous catastrophic natural phenomena in their connection with human economic activity; development of scenarios for modeling individual shells in order to combine them into a single model of the planet, forecasting global changes, taking into account the links in the system "nature - population - economy".

The place of general geography in the system classification of geographical sciences

1.1. General geography in the system of geographical sciences

Geography called a complex of closely related sciences, which is divided into four blocks (Maksakovsky, 1998): physical-geographical, socio-economic-geographical sciences, cartography, regional studies. Each of these blocks, in turn, is subdivided into systems of geographical sciences.

The block of physical and geographical sciences consists of general physical and geographical sciences, particular (industry) physical and geographical sciences, and paleogeography. General physical and geographical sciences are divided into general physical geography (general geography) and regional physical geography.

All physical and geographical sciences are united by a common object of study. Most scientists came to the unanimous opinion that all physical and geographical sciences study the geographical shell. By definition, N.I. Mikhailova (1985), physical geography is the science of the geographic shell of the Earth, its composition, structure, features of formation and development, and spatial differentiation.

Geographic envelope (GO)- the complex outer shell of the Earth, within which there are intense interactions of mineral, water and gas environments (and after the emergence of the biosphere - and living matter) under the influence of cosmic phenomena, primarily solar energy. There is no single point of view on the boundaries of the geographic shell among scientists. The optimal boundaries of the GO are the upper boundary of the troposphere (tropopause) and the bottom of the hypergenesis zone - the boundary of the manifestation of exogenous processes, within which the bulk of the atmosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the upper layer of the lithosphere with organisms living or living in them and traces of human activity are located (see topic 9 ).

Thus, geography is not a science of the Earth in general (such a task would be impossible for one science), but studies only a certain and rather thin film of it - GO. However, even within these limits, nature is studied by many sciences (biology, zoology, geology, climatology, etc.). What is the place of general geography in the system classification of geographical sciences? In answering this question, one clarification needs to be made. Each science has a different object and subject of study (the object of science is the ultimate goal that any geographical research strives for; the subject of science is the immediate goal, the task facing case study). At the same time, the subject of the study of science becomes the object of study of the whole system of sciences at a lower classification level. There are four such classification stages (taxa): cycle, family, genus, species (Fig. 1).

Together with geography earth science cycle includes geology, geophysics, geochemistry, biology. The object of all these sciences is the Earth, but the subject of study for each of them is its own: for geography, this is the earth's surface as an inseparable complex of natural and social origin; for geology - bowels; for geophysics - the internal structure, physical properties and processes occurring in the geospheres; for geochemistry, the chemical composition of the Earth; for biology, organic life.

Purpose of the course
Course objectives

The development of natural science in the ancient period of history.

It is very difficult to single out the point of origin of natural science. Already in ancient times, people tried to understand and explain the natural world to themselves. Knowledge of its laws was necessary for them, first of all, in practical terms (preparation for the change of seasons, for the seasons of drought, rains and river floods, knowledge of the signs of soil fertility, climatic features, and so on). Thus, "the need to calculate the periods of rise and fall of the waters in the Nile created Egyptian astronomy, and at the same time the dominance of the caste of priests as leaders of agriculture."

Significant knowledge was accumulated in mechanics, medicine, botany, and zoology. A special place among the sciences of nature was occupied by astronomy, which satisfied the same degree both practical needs and ideological demands of an inquisitive mind. Already in 1800 BC, under the ruler Hammurabi, an extensive catalog of stars existed in Babylon, and in the 8th century. BC. established a regular astronomical service.

The special place of astronomy was due to the fact that its tasks also included astrological divination, which had an appropriate "ideological base". The thinking of ancient peoples is characterized by ideas about the consubstantiality of all elements of the surrounding world - people, plants, animals, celestial bodies.

No less than practical needs, the origin and development of science is also due to ideological stimuli. Being no less, if not more inquisitive than now, people of distant antiquity tried to compensate for the lack of knowledge with a flight of imagination, bold conjectures, embodied in the beautiful mythologies of Egypt, Babylon and Sumer, China, India, ancient Greece. In the minds of that era, there was a bizarre interweaving scientific observations, mythology and religion; myths, fairy tales, epos served as a receptacle for knowledge, many components of which are lost in attempts to “translate” the knowledge contained in them “into our language”.

The conditions of aristocratic Greece, with a relatively soft and humane slave system, were unique for the creation of natural-philosophical systems that comprehend and describe the world as a whole. Of course, they made up for the lack of scientific data with a flight of imagination. This path gave rise not only to the "three pillars" on which the Earth rests, but also to such conjectures as the concept of atoms.

In ancient ideas about nature, the path “from myth to logos” is clearly traced, to the search for internal patterns and mechanisms of natural phenomena, the logic of their relationships.

So if in Homer and Hesiod many natural phenomena occur according to the whims and whims of the vengeful gods, then the philosopher Anaximander already has the motive of “dominance in the world of cosmic justice, which moderates the struggle of opposites.”

A. Humboldt's law of altitudinal bioclimatic zonation (1850s)

The attention of naturalists and geographers has long been attracted by the change soil and vegetation as you climb the mountains. The first to draw attention to this as a general pattern was the German naturalist A. Humboldt. Altitudinal zonality is a natural change in natural conditions, natural zones, landscapes in the mountains.

In contrast to the plains in the mountains, both flora and fauna are 2-5 times richer in species. The number of altitudinal belts in the mountains depends on the height of the mountains and on their geographical position.

The nature of altitudinal zonality changes depending on the exposure of the slope, and also as the mountains move away from the ocean. In the mountains located near the sea coasts, mountain-forest landscapes predominate. For mountains in the central regions of the mainland, treeless landscapes are typical.

Each high-altitude landscape belt surrounds mountains from all sides, but the system of tiers on opposite slopes of the ridges can differ dramatically.

Geographical law of K. Baer (1860s)

K. Baer's law is a provision according to which rivers flowing in the direction of the meridian in the Northern Hemisphere shift the channel to the right (wash away the right bank), and in the South - to the left (wash away the left bank). Formulated by K. M. Baer in 1857, who associated this phenomenon with the rotation of the Earth around its axis. It is known that a body moving translationally in a rotating system experiences Coriolis acceleration. At the equator it is zero. Its highest values ​​are at the poles. Therefore, Baer's law is more pronounced in middle and high latitudes. The effect of Baer's law is directly proportional to the mass of moving water, therefore it is most pronounced on such large rivers as the Volga, Dnieper, Don, Ob, Irtysh, Lena, Danube and Nile, which in many areas have a high right and low left bank. In the valleys of small rivers, this pattern is practically not manifested.

Natural resources.

Natural resources are components of nature that are used by man at a given level of development of civilization in economic activity.

The structure of the earth.

25. Features of the terrain plan, geographical map, globe, aerospace image, as spatial models of the Earth.

Terrain plan- a drawing of a small area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe terrain on a large scale and in conventional signs, built without taking into account the curvature of the earth's surface.

Geographic map- a reduced generalized image of the earth's surface on a plane, built according to certain mathematical laws in the system symbols. The map shows the location of natural phenomena, their properties, relationships, man-made environment. A geographical map is not a reduced copy of the area, unlike a plan. It is possible to distort and apply only the necessary important objects.

the globe- a reduced model of the Earth, reflecting its spherical shape. The geometric properties of the depicted objects, their linear and areal dimensions, angles and shapes are preserved on the globe, the accepted scale is the same in all parts of the globe, and the degree network is built without distortion.

aerospace image - this is a two-dimensional image of real objects, which is obtained according to certain geometric and radiometric (photometric) laws by remote registration of the brightness of objects and is intended to study visible and hidden objects, phenomena and processes of the surrounding world, as well as to determine their spatial position.

Earth's atmosphere.

Atmosphere- the gaseous shell (geosphere) surrounding the planet Earth. Its inner surface covers the hydrosphere and partially the earth's crust, while its outer surface borders on the near-Earth part of outer space. The thickness of the atmosphere is about 120 km from the Earth's surface.

Weather.

Weather- a set of values ​​of meteorological elements and atmospheric phenomena observed at a certain point in time at a particular point in space.

Distinguish between periodic and non-periodic weather changes. Periodic weather changes depend on the daily and annual rotation of the Earth. Non-periodic due to the transfer of air masses. They disrupt the normal course of meteorological quantities (temperature, atmospheric pressure, air humidity, etc.). Mismatches of the phase of periodic changes with the nature of non-periodic ones lead to the most dramatic changes in the weather.

Climate.

Climate- long-term weather regime, characteristic of a given area due to its geographical location.

Climate-forming factors:

The position of the earth;

Distribution of land and sea;

Atmospheric circulation;

ocean currents;

The relief of the earth's surface.

Wind.

Wind- airflow. On Earth, wind is a stream of air that moves predominantly in a horizontal direction. Winds are classified primarily by their strength, duration and direction. Thus, gusts are considered to be short-term (several seconds) and strong movements of air. Strong winds of medium duration (about 1 minute) are called squalls. The names of longer winds depend on the strength, for example, such names are breeze, storm, storm, hurricane, typhoon. The duration of the wind also varies greatly: some thunderstorms can last several minutes, breezes that depend on the difference in heating features of the relief throughout the day last several hours, global winds caused by seasonal temperature changes - monsoons - last several months, while global winds, caused by the difference in temperature at different latitudes and the Coriolis force, they blow constantly and are called trade winds. Monsoons and trade winds are the winds that make up the general and local circulation of the atmosphere. Winds can also influence the formation of landforms, causing eolian deposits that form various types of soils (for example, loess) or erosion. They can carry sand and dust from deserts over long distances. The winds disperse plant seeds and aid the movement of flying animals, which lead to the expansion of species into new territory. Wind-related phenomena affect wildlife in a variety of ways. Wind arises as a result of an uneven distribution of atmospheric pressure and is directed from a high pressure zone to a low pressure zone. Due to the continuous change in pressure in time and space, the speed and direction of the wind is constantly changing. With height, the wind speed changes due to a decrease in the friction force.

Solar radiation.

Solar radiation- electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation of the Sun. Solar radiation is the main source of energy for all physical and geographical processes occurring on the earth's surface and in the atmosphere. The amount of solar radiation depends on the height of the sun, the time of year, and the transparency of the atmosphere. Actinometers and pyrheliometers are used to measure solar radiation. The intensity of solar radiation is usually measured by its thermal effect and is expressed in calories per unit surface per unit of time.

Solar radiation strongly affects the Earth only in daytime, of course - when the Sun is above the horizon. Also, solar radiation is very strong near the poles, during the polar days, when the Sun is above the horizon even at midnight. However, in winter in the same places, the Sun does not rise above the horizon at all, and therefore does not affect the region. Solar radiation is not blocked by clouds, and therefore it still enters the Earth (when the Sun is directly above the horizon). Solar radiation is a combination of the bright yellow color of the Sun and heat, heat also passes through clouds. Solar radiation is transmitted to Earth through radiation, and not through heat conduction.

Earth's lithosphere.

Earth's lithosphere- the stone shell of the Earth, including the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle; extends to the atmosphere and has a thickness of 150-200 km.

It is broken by deep faults into large blocks (lithospheric plates). They move in a horizontal direction at an average speed of 5-10 cm/year. There are 7 large lithospheric plates: Eurasian, Pacific, African, Indian, Antarctic, North American and South American.

Earth's crust- the first shell of a solid body of the Earth, having a thickness of 30-40 km. The Earth's crust is separated from the mantle by a seismic division called the Mocha system.

Relief classification.

Relief classification- systematization of landforms according to a number of features. A distinction is made between geotextiles: 1) geotextiles, which emphasize the dependence of relief on texts. mode, i.e., the intensity and direction of the latest texts. movements (relief of platforms, areas of mountain building, geosynclinal); 2) genetic - by processes and agents of morphogenesis - denudation-tekt relief. (the highest, high, medium, low mountains and hills) and volcanic, due to Ch. arr. endogenous processes; denudation - basement, reservoir - and accumulative, formed under the influence of predominantly exogenous processes - gravitational river, sea, lake, glacial, hydroglacial, permafrost, eolian, karst, biogenic, technogenic; 3) morphogenetic by relief types; 4) age - by age or stages of relief formation.

45. Factors of relief formation.

The relief is formed as a result of the interaction of internal (endogenous) and external (exogenous) forces. Endogenous and exogenous processes of relief formation operate constantly. At the same time, endogenous processes mainly create the main features of the relief, while exogenous ones try to level the relief. Endogenous forces cause: movements of the lithosphere, the formation of folds and faults, earthquakes and volcanism. All these movements are reflected in the relief and lead to the formation of mountains and troughs of the earth's crust. Exogenous processes associated with the arrival of solar energy on the earth. But they flow with the participation of gravity. When this happens:

1. Weathering of rocks;
2. Movement of material under the action of gravity (landslides, landslides, screes on slopes);
3. Material transport by water and wind.

Earth's hydrosphere.

Hydrosphere- discontinuous water shell of the Earth, consisting of the World Ocean and inland water bodies; this is the main part of the Earth's surface (the area is more than 75% of the total surface - 510 million km2).

The climate on Earth largely depends on the state of water vapor in the atmosphere. At high altitudes, only solid water or individual molecules remain in the atmosphere, which indicates being in outer space; in the depths of the Earth, it passes into a vaporous state, then into a plasma state, and even deeper into a chemically bound state.

The hydrosphere contains 1554 million km3 of water.

The science that studies the hydrosphere is called hydrology:

General hydrology:

o Land hydrology (glaciers, swamps, rivers, etc.);

o Hydrology of the seas;

o Groundwater hydrology;

Regional hydrology (specific water bodies);

Engineering hydrology (methods for calculating and forecasting hydrological characteristics - ebbs and flows).

Biosphere of the Earth.

Biosphere- the shell of the Earth, inhabited by living organisms, under their influence and occupied by the products of their vital activity; "film of life"

· Upper limit in the atmosphere: 15-20 km. It is determined by the ozone layer, which blocks short-wave ultraviolet radiation, which is harmful to living organisms.

· Lower boundary in the lithosphere: 3.5-7.5 km. It is determined by the temperature of the transition of water into steam and the temperature of protein denaturation, however, in general, the spread of living organisms is limited to a depth of several meters.

· The boundary between the atmosphere and the lithosphere in the hydrosphere: 10-11 km. Determined by the bottom of the World Ocean, including bottom sediments.

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Methodological goals and objectives of the course "Geography". The structure of geography as natural science

Purpose of the course
To acquaint students with basic knowledge about the atmosphere, the physical and chemical processes occurring in it, which form the weather and climate.
Course objectives
To acquaint students with the structure of the atmosphere; the composition of the air, the spatial distribution of pressure, temperature, and humidity on the globe; processes of formation of solar radiation in the atmosphere; thermal and water regime; properties of the main circulation systems that determine weather changes at different latitudes.
Familiarize with the instruments and instill the skills of the simplest meteorological, gradient and actinometric observations.
Give an idea of ​​the climate system, the relationship between global and local climates, climate formation processes, climate classification systems, large-scale climate changes and modern climate warming

The subject of geography is geographical envelope- the volume of matter of different composition and state that arose under terrestrial conditions and formed a specific sphere of our planet. The geographic envelope in geography is studied as part of the planet and the Cosmos, which is under the power of earthly forces and develops in the process of complex cosmic-planetary interaction.
In the system of fundamental geographical education, geography is a kind of link between geographical knowledge, skills and ideas acquired at school, and global natural science. This course introduces the future geographer to a complex professional world, laying the foundations of a geographical worldview and thinking.
Geography is one of the fundamental natural sciences. In the hierarchy of the natural cycle of sciences, geography as a particular version of planetary science should be on a par with astronomy, cosmology, physics, and chemistry. The next rank is created by the Earth sciences - geology, geography, general biology, ecology, etc. Geography plays a special role in the system of geographical disciplines. It appears as if "super-science" that combines information about all the processes and phenomena that occur after the formation of the planet from the interstellar nebula. Earth science serves as a theoretical basis for global ecology - a science that assesses the current state and predicts the next changes in the geographical envelope as the environment for the existence of living organisms in order to ensure their ecological well-being. The main task of geography is the study of global changes occurring in the geographic envelope in order to understand the interaction of physical, chemical and biological processes that determine the Earth's ecosystem.

The course is intended for those wishing to get a basic understanding of what geography does in general.

Geography- a branch of natural science, which includes geology and biology. He studies the most general patterns of the structure and development of the geographic shell of the Earth, its spatio-temporal organization, the circulation of matter and energy, etc.

This term was introduced by the German geographer K. Ritter in the first half of the 19th century.

Introduction, definition of the subject

Geography is one of the fundamental geographical sciences. The task of general geography is the knowledge of the geographic shell as a dynamic structure, its spatial differentiation. It should be understood that, in its essence, geography is a prelude to "real" geography. The doctrine of the geographical shell is the prism that allows you to determine the belonging of certain objects and phenomena to the sphere of interests of geography. Thus, the constituent parts of the geographic shell are studied by branch sciences, in particular the earth's crust - by geology, but how component geographical shell, it is the subject of study of geography; so, geography- the science of the most general patterns of the geographical shell. General geography is closely related to landscape science, since the subject of study of landscape science is the landscape sphere of the Earth - the most active part of the geographic envelope, consisting of natural territorial complexes (NTCs) of various ranks. Combining the ideas of geography and landscape studies is possible when applying a regional approach, in view of the chosen scale (not a separate landscape, but not the entire geographical shell) - this was reflected in the emergence of physical and geographical regional studies (for example, S. N. Ryazantsev "Kyrgyzstan" (1946 d.), A. Boli "North America" ​​(1948) and others).

Literature according to the course

1. Bobkov V. A., Seliverstov Yu. P., Chervanev I. G. General geography. St. Petersburg, 1998.
2. Gerenchuk K. I., Bokov V. A., Chervanev I. G. General geography. M.: graduate School, 1984.
3. Ermolaev M. M. Introduction to physical geography. L.: Ed. Leningrad State University, 1975.
4. Kalesnik S.V. General geographical patterns of the Earth. M.: Thought, 1970.
5. Kalesnik S.V. Fundamentals of general geography. Moscow: Uchpedgiz, 1955.
6. Milkov F. N. General geography. Moscow: Higher school, 1990.
7. Shubaev L.P. General geography. Moscow: Higher school, 1977.

Origin of the Earth and Solar System

solar system

According to modern scientific concepts, the formation of the solar system began about 4.6 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant interstellar molecular cloud. Most of the matter ended up in the gravitational center of the collapse, followed by the formation of a star - the Sun. The substance that did not fall into the center formed a protoplanetary disk rotating around it, from which the planets, their satellites, asteroids and other small bodies of the solar system were subsequently formed.

The Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago from a protoplanetary disk of dust and gas left over from the Sun's formation.

The core of the planet was rapidly shrinking. Due to nuclear reactions and the decay of radioactive elements in the bowels of the Earth, so much heat was released that the rocks that formed it melted: lighter substances rich in silicon separated in the earth's core from denser iron and nickel and formed the first earth's crust. After about a billion years, when the Earth cooled significantly, the earth's crust hardened and turned into a solid outer shell of our planet, consisting of solid rocks.

As it cooled, the Earth ejected many different gases from its core. The composition of the primary atmosphere included water vapor, methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and inert gases. The composition of the secondary atmosphere - methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Part of the water vapor from the atmosphere condensed as it cooled, and oceans began to form on Earth.

Presumably 4 billion years ago, intense chemical reactions led to the emergence of self-reproducing molecules, and within half a billion years the first living organism appeared - the cell. The development of photosynthesis allowed living organisms to directly accumulate solar energy. As a result, oxygen began to accumulate in the atmosphere, and the ozone layer began to form in the upper layers. The fusion of small cells with larger ones led to the development of complex cells. Real multicellular organisms, consisting of a group of cells, began to adapt more and more to environmental conditions.

The surface of the planet was constantly changing; continents appeared and collapsed, moved, collided and diverged. The last supercontinent broke apart 180 million years ago.

General statistics

Earth area:

• Surface: 510.073 million km²
• Land: 148.94 million km²
• Water: 361.132 million km²

70.8% of the planet's surface is covered with water and 29.2% is land.

Earth structure

Cutaway Earth Model

The earth has a layered internal structure. It consists of hard silicate shells and a metal core. The outer part of the nucleus is liquid, while the inner part is solid. Geological layers of the Earth in depth from the surface:

• Earth's crust is the top layer of the earth. It is separated from the mantle by a boundary with a sharp increase in the velocities of seismic waves - the Mohorovichich boundary. The thickness of the crust ranges from 6 km under the ocean to 30-50 km on the continents, respectively, there are two types of crust - continental and oceanic. Three geological layers are distinguished in the structure of the continental crust: sedimentary cover, granite and basalt. The oceanic crust is composed mainly of mafic rocks, plus a sedimentary cover.

• Mantle- this is a silicate shell of the Earth, composed mainly of peridotites - rocks consisting of silicates of magnesium, iron, calcium, etc. The mantle makes up 67% of the entire mass of the Earth and about 83% of the total volume of the Earth. It extends from depths of 5 - 70 kilometers below the boundary with the earth's crust, to the boundary with the core at a depth of 2900 km.

• Core- the deepest part of the planet, located under the mantle of the Earth and, presumably, consisting of an iron-nickel alloy with an admixture of other siderophile elements. Depth - 2900 km. The average radius of the sphere is 3.5 thousand km. It is divided into a solid inner core with a radius of about 1300 km and a liquid outer core with a radius of about 2200 km, between which a transition zone is sometimes distinguished. The temperature in the center of the Earth's core reaches 5000 °C, the density is about 12.5 t/m3, and the pressure is up to 361 GPa. The mass of the core is 1.932 10 24 kg.

Geographic envelope

The geographic shell is an integral and continuous shell of the Earth, within which the lithosphere, hydrosphere, lower layers of the atmosphere and the biosphere or living matter come into contact, mutually penetrate and interact. The geographic envelope includes the entire thickness of the hydrosphere, the entire biosphere, in the atmosphere it extends to the ozone layer, in the earth's crust it covers the area of ​​hypergenesis. The greatest thickness of the geographic shell is about 40 km (a number of scientists take the tropopause as the upper boundary, and the bottom of the stratisphere as the lower boundary. The geographic shell differs from other parts of the planet in the greatest complexity of composition and structure, the greatest diversity in the degree of aggregation of matter (from free elementary particles through atoms, ions to the most complex compounds) and greatest wealth different types of free energy. On Earth, only in the geographical shell there are organisms, soils, sedimentary rocks, various forms of relief, solar heat is concentrated, there is a human society. The concept of a geographical shell was formulated by A. A. Grigoriev. Concepts close in meaning are the landscape shell (Yu. K. Efremov), the epigeosphere (A. G. Isachenko). It should be noted that recently a number of scientists have been putting forward theses about the actual absence of a geographical envelope, its theoretical nature (due to the alleged absence of the Mohorovichich surface (analysis of data from the Kola superdeep well) and some other evidence), however, this opinion is not well-established and does not seem to be quite satisfactorily justified.

The structure of the geographic shell is the internal organization of the material composition and energy processes of the geographic shell, manifested in the nature of the relationships and combinations between its various components, primarily in the ratio of heat and moisture. The most important structural feature of the geographic envelope as a whole is its territorial geographic differentiation, subject to the laws of zoning, sectoring, and altitudinal zonation.

Components of the geographic shell:

• Lithosphere- the outer sphere of the planet, including the earth's crust to the surface of Mohorovichich.
• Hydrosphere- intermittent water shell of the Earth, located between the atmosphere and the earth's crust and representing the totality of oceans, seas, continental water masses. The hydrosphere covers 70.8% of the earth's surfaces. The volume of the hydrosphere is 1370.3 million km³, which is 1/800 of the total volume of the planet. Of the total mass of the hydrosphere, 98.31% is concentrated in the oceans and seas, 1.65% - in material ice polar regions and only 0.045% in fresh waters rivers, lakes, swamps. The chemical composition of the hydrosphere approaches the average composition of sea water. The hydrosphere is in constant interaction with the atmosphere, the earth's crust and the biosphere.
• Atmosphere- the air envelope surrounding the globe and associated with it by gravity; take part in the daily and annual rotation of the Earth. The composition, movement and physical processes in the atmosphere are the subject of study of meteorology. The atmosphere has no clear upper boundary; at an altitude of about 3000 km, the density of the atmosphere approaches the density of matter in interplanetary space. In the vertical direction, the atmosphere is divided into: the lower layer - the troposphere (up to a height of 8-18 km), the overlying - the stratosphere (up to 40-50 km), the mesosphere (up to 80-85 km), the thermosphere, or the ionosphere (up to 500-600 km, according to other sources - yes 800 km), the exosphere and the earth's corona. The system of motions of the atmosphere on a planetary scale is called the general circulation of the atmosphere. Almost the only source of energy for atmospheric processes is solar radiation. From the atmosphere, in turn, long-wave radiation goes into outer space; There is a constant exchange of heat and moisture between the atmosphere and the earth's surface.
• Biosphere- a set of parts of the earth's shells that are under the influence of living organisms and occupied by the products of their vital activity.

Geography called a complex of closely related sciences, which is divided into four blocks (V.P. Maksakovskii, 1998): physical-geographical, socio-economic-geographical sciences, cartography, regional studies. Each of these blocks, in turn, is subdivided into systems of geographical sciences.

The block of physical and geographical sciences consists of general physical and geographical sciences, particular (industry) physical and geographical sciences, and paleogeography. General physical and geographical sciences are divided into general physical geography (general geography) and regional physical geography.

All physical and geographical sciences are united by a single object of study. Now the majority of scientists have come to the general opinion that all physical and geographical sciences study the geographical envelope. By definition, N.I. Mikhailova (1985), physical geography is the science of the geographic shell of the Earth, its composition, structure, features of formation and development, and spatial differentiation.

Geographic envelope (GO) - a material system formed during the interpenetration and interaction of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, living matter, and at the present stage, human society. The upper and lower limits of GO approximately coincide with the boundaries of the spread of life. It extends on average to a height of 20-25 km (to the border of the ozone screen), includes the entire surface water shell up to 11 km thick in the ocean and the upper 2, 3 km thickness of the lithosphere.

Thus, geography is not a science of the Earth in general - such a task would be impossible for one science, but studies only a certain and rather thin film of it - GO. However, even within these limits, nature is studied by many sciences (biology, zoology, geology, climatology, etc.). What is the place of general geography in the systemic classification of geographical sciences? Answering this question, one clarification is necessary. Each science has a different object and subject of study (the object of science is the ultimate goal that any geographical research strives for; the subject of science is the immediate goal, task facing a specific study). At the same time, the subject of the study of science becomes the object of study of the whole system of sciences at a lower classification level. There are four such classification stages (taxa): cycle, family, genus, species (Fig. 1).

Together with geography earth science cycle includes biology, geology, geophysics, geochemistry. All these sciences have one object of study - the Earth, but each of them has its own subject of study (biology - organic life, geochemistry - the chemical composition of the Earth, geology - bowels, geography - the earth's surface as an inseparable complex of natural and social origin). At the level of the cycle, we see the objective essence of the unity of geography. In the cycle of Earth sciences, geography is separated not by one subject of study, but also by the main method - descriptive . The oldest and common to all geographical sciences, the descriptive method continues to become more complex and improved along with the development of science. In the title itself geography(from the Greek ge - Earth and grapho - I write), the subject and the main method of research are concluded.

Geography at the level of the cycle is an undivided geography, the ancestor of all other geographical sciences. It studies the most general patterns and is called undivided because its conclusions equally apply to all subsequent divisions of geographical science.

The family of geographical sciences is formed by physical and economic geography, regional studies, cartography, history and methodology of geographical science. All of them have a single object - the earth's surface, but different subjects: physical geography - the geographical shell of the Earth, economic - economy and population in the form of territorial socio-economic systems. Country studies is a synthesis of physical and economic geography; at the family level, it has a general geographic triune (nature, population, economy) character.

In the family of geographical sciences, a special place is occupied by the history and methodology of geographical science. This is not the traditional history of geographical discoveries, but the history of geographical ideas, the history of the formation of modern methodological foundations of geographical science. First creation experience lecture course on the history and methodology of geographical science belongs to Yu.G. Saushkin (1976).

The genus of physical and geographical sciences is represented by general geography, landscape science, paleogeography and private sectoral sciences. These different sciences are united by one object of study - the geographical shell; the subject of study of each of the sciences is specific, individual - this is one of the structural parts or sides of the geographical shell (geomorphology - the science of the relief of the earth's surface, climatology and meteorology - the sciences that study the air shell, the formation of climates and their geographical distribution, soil science - patterns of soil formation, their development, composition and patterns of placement, hydrology is a science that studies the water shell of the Earth, biogeography studies the composition of living organisms, their distribution and the formation of biocenoses). The task of paleogeography is the study of the geographical envelope and the dynamics of natural conditions in past geological epochs. The subject of study of landscape science is the thin, most active central layer of GO - the landscape sphere, which consists of natural-territorial complexes of different ranks. The subject of study of general geography (GS) is the structure, internal and external relationships, the dynamics of the functioning of GO as an integral system.

General geography is a fundamental science that studies the general patterns of the structure, functioning and development of GO as a whole, its components and natural complexes in unity and interaction with the surrounding space-time at different levels of its organization (from the Universe to the atom) and establishes ways of creating and existing modern natural (natural-anthropogenic) conditions, trends of their possible transformation in the future. In other words, general geography is the science or study of human environment environment where all the processes and phenomena we observe are carried out and living organisms function.

GO has now changed a lot under the influence of man. It contains areas of the highest economic activity of society. Now it is no longer possible to consider it without taking into account human impact. In this regard, the idea of ​​through directions began to form in the works of geographers (V.P. Maksakovskii, 1998). In general geography as a fundamental science, the importance of these areas is especially emphasized. Firstly, it is humanization, i.e. turn to the person, all spheres and cycles of his activity. Humanization is a new worldview that affirms the values ​​of a universal, common cultural heritage, so geography should consider the links "man - economy - territory - environment".

Secondly, it is sociologization, i.e. increased attention to the social aspects of development.

Thirdly, greening is a direction that is currently given exceptional importance. The ecological culture of mankind should include skills, a perceived need and need to measure the activities of society and each person with the ability to preserve positive environmental qualities and properties of the environment.

Fourth, economization is a direction characteristic of many sciences.

In the system of fundamental geographical education, the course of general geography performs several important functions:

1. This course introduces the future geographer to his complex professional world, laying the foundations of the geographical worldview and thinking. Processes and phenomena are considered in a systemic connection with each other and with the surrounding space, while private disciplines are forced to study them, first of all, separately from each other.

2. Geoscience is the theory of GO as an integral system that is a carrier of geographic and other information on the development of matter, which is of fundamental importance for geography in general and allows using the provisions of geography as a methodological basis for geographic analysis.

3. Geoscience serves as a theoretical basis for global ecology, which focuses on assessing the current state and predicting the next changes in the geographic envelope as an environment for the existence of living organisms and human habitation in order to ensure environmental safety.

4. Geography is the theoretical basis and basis of evolutionary geography - a huge block of disciplines that investigate and decipher the history of the emergence and development of our planet, its environment and the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of the geological (geographical) past. General geography ensures the correct understanding of the past, the reasoning of the causes and consequences of modern processes and phenomena in civil defense, the correctness of their analysis and transfer to similar events of the past.

5. Geography is a kind of bridge between the geographical knowledge, skills and ideas acquired in school courses, and the theory of deep learning.

At present, the concept of geography, which has developed as a systemic doctrine of an integral object - GO, has noticeably transformed - from the knowledge of fundamental physical and geographical patterns to the study of "humanized" nature on this basis in order to optimize the natural environment (natural-anthropogenic) and manage processes, including those caused by human activity and its consequences at the planetary level.

1.2. History of the development of general geography

The development of general geography as a science is inseparable from the development of geography. Therefore, the tasks facing geography are to the same extent the tasks of general geography.

All sciences, including geography, are characterized by three stages of knowledge:

Collection and accumulation of facts;

Bringing them into a system, creating classifications and theories;

scientific forecast, practical use theories.

The tasks that geography set for itself changed as science and human society developed.

Ancient geography mainly had a descriptive function, was engaged in the description of newly discovered lands. This task was carried out by geography until the Great geographical discoveries of the 16th and 17th centuries. The descriptive direction in geography has not lost its significance at the present time. However, in the bowels of the descriptive direction, another direction was born - the analytical one: the first geographical theories appeared in antique time. Aristotle (philosopher, scientist, 384-322 BC) - the founder of the analytical direction in geography. His work "Meteorology", essentially a course of general geography, in which he spoke about the existence and mutual penetration of several spheres, about the circulation of moisture and the formation of rivers due to surface runoff, about changes in the earth's surface, sea currents, earthquakes, zones of the Earth. Eratosthenes (275-195 BC) owns the first accurate measurement of the circumference of the Earth along the meridian - 252 thousand stages, which is close to 40 thousand km.

The ancient Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy (c. 90-168 AD), who lived during the heyday of the Roman Empire, played a large and unique role in the development of general geography. Ptolemy distinguished between geography and chorography. Under the first, he meant “a linear image of the entire part of the Earth now known to us, with everything that is on it,” under the second, a detailed description of the localities; the first (geography) deals with quantity, the second (chorography) deals with quality. Ptolemy proposed two new cartographic projections, he is deservedly considered the "father" of cartography. "Guide to Geography" (based on the geocentric system of the world) Ptolemy of 8 books completes the ancient period in the development of geography.

Medieval geography is based on the dogmas of the church.

In 1650, in Holland, Bernhard Varenii (1622-1650) published "General Geography" - a work from which one can count the time of general geography as an independent scientific discipline. It summarized the results of the Great geographical discoveries and successes in the field of astronomy based on the heliocentric picture of the world (N. Copernicus, G. Galileo, J. Bruno, I. Kepler). The subject of geography, according to B. Varenii, is an amphibious circle formed by interpenetrating parts - earth, water, atmosphere. The amphibian circle as a whole is studied by universal geography. Separate areas are the subject of private geography.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, when the world was mostly discovered and described, analytical and explanatory functions came to the fore: geographers analyzed the accumulated data and created the first hypotheses and theories. A century and a half after Vareniya unfolds scientific activity A. Humboldt (1769-1859). A. Humboldt, an encyclopedic scientist, traveler, researcher of the nature of South America, represented nature as a holistic, interconnected picture of the world. His greatest merit lies in the fact that he revealed the significance of the analysis of relationships as the leading thread of all geographical science. Using the analysis of the relationship between vegetation and climate, he laid the foundations of plant geography; expanding the range of relationships (vegetation - fauna - climate - relief), substantiated the bioclimatic latitudinal and altitudinal zonality. In his work Cosmos, Humboldt took the first step towards substantiating the view of the earth's surface (a subject of geography) as a special shell, developing the idea not only of the relationship, but also of the interaction of air, sea, Earth, the unity of inorganic and organic nature. He owns the term "life sphere", which is similar in content to the biosphere, as well as the "sphere of the mind", which later received the name noosphere.

At the same time, Karl Ritter (1779-1859), professor at the University of Berlin, founder of the first department of geography in Germany, worked with A. Humboldt. Ritter introduced the term "geography" into science, sought to quantify the spatial relationships between various geographical objects. K. Ritter was a purely armchair scientist and, despite the great popularity of his works on general geography, their natural history part is unoriginal. The earth - the subject of geography - K. Ritter proposed to consider as the dwelling of the human race, but the solution to the problem of nature - man resulted in an attempt to combine the incompatible - scientific natural science with God.

The Development of Geographical Thought in Russia in the 18th – 19th Centuries associated with the names of the largest scientists - M.V. Lomonosov, V.N. Tatishcheva, S.P. Krasheninnikova V.V. Dokuchaeva, D.N. Anuchina, A.I. Voeikova and others M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765), unlike K. Ritter, was an organizer of science, a great practitioner. He explored the solar system, discovered the atmosphere on Venus, studied electrical and optical effects in the atmosphere (lightning). In the work "On the Layers of the Earth", the scientist emphasized the importance of the historical approach in science. Historicism pervades all his work, whether he speaks of the origin of the black earth or of tectonic movements. The laws of relief formation, outlined by M.V. Lomonosov, are still recognized by geomorphologists. M.V. Lomonosov is the founder of Moscow State University.

V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903) in the monograph "Russian Chernozem" and A.I. Voeikov (1842-1916) in the monograph "Climates of the Globe, Especially Russia", using the example of soils and climate, reveals a complex mechanism of interaction between the components of the geographic envelope. At the end of the 19th century V.V. Dokuchaev comes to the most important theoretical generalization in general geography - the law of world geographical zonality, he considers zonality to be a universal law of nature, which applies to all components of nature (including inorganic ones), to plains and mountains, land and sea.

In 1884 D.N. Anuchin (1843-1923) organizes the Department of Geography and Ethnography at Moscow State University. In 1887, the department of geography was opened at St. Petersburg University, a year later - at Kazan University. The organizer of the Department of Geography at Kharkov University in 1889 was a student of V.V. Dokuchaeva A.N. Krasnov (1862-1914), explorer of the steppes and foreign tropics, creator of the Batumi Botanical Garden, in 1894 became the first doctor of geography in Russia after the public defense of his dissertation. A.N. Krasnov spoke about three features of scientific geography that distinguish it from the old geography:

Scientific geography sets the task not of describing disparate phenomena of nature, but of finding the interconnection and mutual conditioning between natural phenomena;

Scientific geography is not interested in the external side of natural phenomena, but in their genesis;

Scientific geography does not describe an unchanging, static nature, but a changing nature that has its own history of development.

A.N. Krasnov is the author of the first Russian textbook for universities on general geography. In the methodological introduction to the Fundamentals of Geography, the author argues that geography studies not individual phenomena and processes, but their combinations, geographical complexes - deserts, steppes, areas of eternal snow and ice, etc. This view of geography as a science of geographical complexes was new in geographical literature.

The idea of ​​the outer shell of the Earth as a subject of physical geography was expressed most clearly by P.I. Brownov (1852-1927). In the preface to the course "General Physical Geography" P.I. Brownov wrote that physical geography studies the modern structure of the earth's outer shell, which consists of four concentric spherical shells: the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. All these spheres penetrate one another, causing by their interaction the outer appearance of the Earth and all the phenomena occurring on it. The study of this interaction is one of the most important tasks of physical geography, making it completely independent and distinguishing it from geology, meteorology, and other related sciences.

In 1932 A.A. Grigoriev (1883-1968) comes out with a noteworthy article "The Subject and Tasks of Physical Geography", which states that the earth's surface is a qualitatively special vertical physiographic zone, or shell, characterized by deep interpenetration and active interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere , the emergence and development of organic life in it, the presence in it of a complex, but unified physical and geographical process. A few years later, A.A. Grigoriev (1937) devotes a special monograph to the substantiation of the geographical envelope as a subject of physical geography. In his works, he also found the rationale for the main method of studying GO - the balance method, primarily the radiation balance, the balance of heat and moisture.

In the same years, L.S. Berg (1876-1950) laid the foundations for the doctrine of landscape and geographical zones. At the end of the 40s, attempts were made to oppose the teachings of A.A. Grigoriev about the physical-geographical shell and the physical-geographical process and L.S. Berg on landscapes. The only correct position in the unfolding discussion was taken by S.V. Kalesnik (1901-1977), who showed that these two directions do not contradict each other, but reflect different aspects of the subject of physical geography - the geographical envelope. This point of view was embodied in the fundamental work of S.V. Kalesnik "Fundamentals of general geography" (1947, 1955). The work largely contributed to a broad knowledge of the geographical shell as a subject of physical geography.

Currently, at the noospheric stage of the development of GO, much attention is paid to geographical forecasting and monitoring, i.e. control over the state of nature and foresee its future development.

The most important task of modern geography is the development of scientific foundations for the rational use of natural resources. Preservation and improvement of the natural environment. To solve it, it is necessary to study the patterns of change and development of civil defense in conditions of intensive use of natural resources, the inevitable transformation of the environment under active technogenic impact.

At present, great importance is attached to the study of natural disasters and the development of ways to predict them, since natural and man-made disasters have become more frequent, and as the population increases and technology develops, their impact will become ever larger.

One of the most important tasks of geography is the study of the interaction between man and nature, the development of a strategy for the co-evolution of man and nature.

1.3. Basic Research Methods

All the variety of methods of geographical research is reduced to three categories: general scientific, interdisciplinary and specific for a given science (according to F.N. Milkov, 1990). The most important general scientific method is the materialist dialectic. Its laws and basic provisions on the universal connection of phenomena, the unity and struggle of opposites, the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, the negation of negation are methodological basis geography. Connected with materialist dialectics is historical method. In physical geography, the historical method found its expression in paleogeography. of general scientific importance systems approach to the object under study. Each object is considered as a complex formation, consisting of structural parts interacting with each other.

Interdisciplinary methods are common for a group of sciences. In geography, these are mathematical, geochemical, geophysical methods and a modeling method. To study objects, quantitative characteristics and mathematical statistics are used. Recently, computer processing of materials has been widely used. mathematical method - an important method in geography, but often testing, memorizing quantitative characteristics replace the development of a creative, thinking person. Geochemical and geophysical methods make it possible to evaluate the flows of matter and energy in the geographical envelope, cycles, thermal and water regimes.

Model (simulation method)- a graphic representation of the object, reflecting the structure and dynamic relationships, giving a program for further research. The models of the future state of the biosphere by N.N. Moiseev.

Specific methods in geography include comparative descriptive, expeditionary, cartographic, and aerospace methods.

Comparative descriptive and cartographic methods are the oldest methods in geography. A. Humboldt in "Pictures of Nature" wrote that comparing the distinctive features of the nature of distant countries and presenting the results of these comparisons is a rewarding task for geography. Comparison performs a number of functions: it determines the area of ​​similar phenomena, delimits similar phenomena, makes the unfamiliar familiar. The expression of the comparative descriptive method is various kinds of isolines - isotherms, isohypses, isobars, etc. Without them, it is impossible to imagine any branch or complex scientific discipline of the physical and geographical cycle.

The comparative-descriptive method finds the most complete and versatile application in regional studies.

Expeditionary method research is called field research. The field material collected on expeditions is the bread and butter of geography, its foundation, on the basis of which alone theory can develop.

Expeditions as a method of collecting field material originate from ancient times. Herodotus in the middle of the 5th century BC made a long journey, which gave him the necessary material on the history and nature of the visited countries. In his nine-volume work "History" he described the nature, population, religion of many countries (Babylon, Asia Minor, Egypt), gave data on the Black Sea, the Dnieper, the Don. This is followed by the era of the great geographical discoveries - the travel of Columbus, Magellan, Vasco da Gamma, etc.). The Great Northern Expedition in Russia (1733-1743) should be put on a par with them, the purpose of which was to explore Kamchatka (the nature of Kamchatka was studied, the north-west of North America was discovered, the coast of the Arctic Ocean was described, the northernmost point of Asia was mapped - Cape Chelyuskin). Academic expeditions of 1768-1774 left a deep mark in the history of Russian geography. They were complex, their task was to describe the nature, population and economy of a vast territory - European Russia, the Urals, part of Siberia.

A variety of field studies are geographical hospitals. The initiative to create them belongs to A.A. Grigoriev, the first hospital under his leadership was created in the Tien Shan. The geographical station of the State Hydrological Institute in Valdai, the geographical station of Moscow State University are widely known.

Study of geographical maps before entering the field - a necessary condition for successful field work. At this time, gaps in the data are identified, areas of integrated research are determined. Maps are the final result of field work, they reflect the relative position and structure of the studied objects, show their relationships.

aerial photography used in geography since the 30s of the 20th century, space shooting appeared relatively recently. They allow in a complex, over large areas and from a great height to assess the objects under study.

Balance method- the basis is a universal physical law - the law of conservation of matter and energy. Having established all possible ways of entry and exit of matter and energy and measuring the flows, the researcher can judge by their difference whether these substances have been accumulated in the geosystem or consumed by it. The balance method is used in geography as a means of studying energy, water and salt regimes, gas composition, biological and other cycles.

All geographic research is distinguished by a specific geographical approach- a fundamental idea of ​​the relationship and interdependence of phenomena, a comprehensive view of nature. It is characterized by territoriality, globality, historicism.

Darling, Murray

Geoscience module

Introduction. General geography in the system of geographical disciplines.

· General geography in the system of geographical sciences.

· History of geographical research. Great geographical discoveries.

· The geographic envelope and its components.

1. General geography in the system of geographical disciplines.

Geography is an ancient and eternally young science, well known in the school course. In it, the unfading romance of wanderings is wonderfully combined with a special, deeply scientific vision of the world. There is hardly any other science that would be equally interested in water and land, the Earth's relief and atmospheric processes, wildlife and the territorial organization of people's life and activities. The synthesis of this knowledge characterizes modern geography.

Modern geography is a system of interrelated sciences, subdivided primarily into physical-geographical and economic-geographical sciences.

The physical-geographical sciences (physical geography) are among the natural sciences that study nature.

The object of study of physical geography is a complex or , formed as a result of contact, interpenetration and interaction of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and organisms. Differently, GO - geographic envelope of the earth – it is an arena of complex interaction and interweaving of the most diverse phenomena and processes of animate and inanimate nature, human society . Because of this, the object of geography differs from the objects of other sciences in its complexity, diverse system organization.

Knowledge of planetary geographic patterns is necessary to understand the characteristics of any part of the planetary complex, to calculate, account, predict and regulate the impact of society on civil defense.

The section of general geography - landscape science. General geography and landscape science are inextricably linked: the subject of their study is the natural complex. Sometimes landscape science is confused with physical country studies, which deals with the study of civil defense sites within "random boundaries", for example, administrative ones. Physical regional studies does not have a special, its own subject of study. Regional studies are important in that they provide physical and geographical information about a certain territory, which is necessary for practice.

The study of the components of civil defense is carried out by private (component) physical and geographical sciences. These include:

Geomorphology(from Greek geo - "Earth", morphe - a science that studies the upper part of the lithosphere that acts with other GO components. The result of this impact is the relief of the earth's surface. He studies various landforms, their origin and development.

Climatology(from the Greek klima - "inclination", logos - "teaching") - the science of the patterns of formation and development in space and time of air masses of the atmosphere as a result of their interaction with other components of GO.

Oceanology – complex science of the World Ocean as a specific part of the Earth's civil defense.

Hydrology– the science of the natural waters of the Earth - the hydrosphere. AT narrow sense – the science of land waters, which studies various water bodies (rivers, lakes, swamps) with a qualitative and quantitative description of their position, origin, regime, depending on the state of other components of GO.

soil science – the science of a special material body of the Earth - the soil. Soil is a real manifestation of the interaction of all components of GO.

biogeography – synthetic science that reveals patterns of geographical distribution of organisms and their communities, explores their ecosystem organization.

Glaciology- (from Latin glacies - "ice" and Greek logos - "teaching") and

permafrost(geocryolithology) – the science of the conditions for the emergence, development and forms of various ground (glaciers, sea ice, snowfields, avalanches, etc.) and lithospheric (permafrost, underground glaciation) ice.

To understand the current state of GO, all its constituent natural complexes, it is necessary to know the history of their development. This is what paleogeography and historical geography do.

Paleogeography and historical geography – sciences that study trends in the development of geographical objects in the past.

If "general geography" is a natural science, then economic geography belongs to the social sciences, because studies the structure and location of production, the conditions and characteristics of its development in various countries and regions.

At the junction of geography with related sciences, new areas are emerging: medical, military, engineering geography.

Geographical research is inconceivable without the use of maps and cartography.

The map, methods of its creation and use are the subject of study of an independent geographical science – cartography.

2. History of geographical research.

The earth was discovered together. The very first documented expedition was organized by a woman.

Queen Hatshepsut - in the history of Ancient Egypt, sent ships to the country of incense - Punt (c. 1493 - 1492 BC).

Long time navigation remained exclusively coastal, tk. the only instrument of movement was the oar.

About 1150-1000 years. BC. Greeks got acquainted with the Black Sea. Already in the 8th century BC. they discovered Colchis, founded the 1st colony.

Starting from the 8th century, the Phoenicians regularly sailed to the islands of the Blessed (Canary Islands), mined dyes from special kind lichen and dragon tree resin.

Around 525 BC they tried to populate the western coast of Africa (the Phoenicians are the discoverers of Africa). Their unparalleled voyage around Africa from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean was repeated only after 2000 years.

4th century BC 2 parts of the world became common: Europe and Asia (Assia), associated with the Assyrian terms "ereb" - sunset, and "asu" - sunrise. The Greeks called the third known part of the world Libya. The Romans, having conquered Corthage (2nd century BC), called their province "Afrika", because. the Berber tribe of afrigia lived there (“afri” - a cave).

Most ancient geographers said that the Earth is spherical, the issue of size caused controversy (Eratosthenes 276 - 195 BC - circumference - 252 thousand stadia, Posiidonius - 180 thousand stadia).

On the map of Eratosthenes, parallels were drawn with various intervals corresponding to climatic zones (they were already schematically calculated from the duration).

The entire globe was divided into 5 or 9 latitudinal zones: the equator - uninhabited, due to heat, two polar ones - also uninhabited, due to cold, and only 2 intermediate belts - moderate and inhabited.

It was believed that the inhabited part of the land is surrounded by a single boundless World Ocean (Strabo).

Gradually, after centuries, the ancient idea of ​​the sphericity of the Earth was replaced by the biblical one: the Earth is a disk fixed under the waters and covered with a crystal firmament.

Starting from the 8th century, the keel ships of the Normans (Vikings) fearlessly plowed the Norwegian, Baltic, North, Barents Seas, and the Bay of Biscay. They penetrated the White, Caspian, Mediterranean, Black Seas, robbed and ravaged settlements. They captured the British Isles, fortified themselves in Normandy, terrorized France, created a Norman state in Sicily, and for 2 centuries kept all of Europe in fear.

They discovered Iceland (c. 860), in 981 they reached the shores of Greenland and in 1000 - the shores of America.

Greenland was discovered by Eric the Red. Leif Erickson discovered America.

In the middle of the 14th century, a severe cooling began. The Greenland colonies were dying out.

The Normans managed to penetrate into America to the Great Lakes and the headwaters of the Mississippi. By rightfully so in 1887, a monument to Leif Erickson was erected in Boston as the discoverer of America.

The discoveries of the Normans did not attract the attention of scientists, as did the unnoticed travels of the Arabs.

The Moroccan Ibn Batuta is often called "the greatest traveler of all times before Magellan. For 24 years (1325-1349), about 120 thousand km traveled by land and sea. His most valuable work is a book describing the cities and countries he visited.

The maps of the Arab geographers Idrisi (c. 1150) and Ibn al-Vardi (13th century) testify to the presence there of Scandinavia, the Baltic Sea, Lake Ladoga and Onega, the Dvina, the Dnieper, the Don, and the Volga. Idrisi showed the Yenisei, Baikal, Amur, the Altai Mountains, Tibet, the country of Sin and the country of the Indus.

After more than 3 centuries, the Portuguese rounded the Cape of Good Hope, proving that the Indian Sea is part of the World Ocean (then the outline of the 3rd continent, Africa, appeared).