Features of the development of the child in primary school age. Age features of children of primary school age

The onset of school maturity. During ten school years the child goes through a long way, during which he grows, matures and reaches a mature type of functioning of his body, the intellect is formed.

Children grow and develop unevenly. Periods of intensive growth processes are replaced by their inhibition, periods of elongation alternate with periods of rounding. Throughout the individual development of the organism, constant, regular changes occur both in the size of the body and in the functional characteristics of organs and systems.

As a result of changes at each stage of ontogenesis, the properties of individual systems and the organism as a whole, specific for each stage, are formed. Accounting for these properties is necessary when planning and conducting both pedagogical and hygienic, recreational and sports events.

Entering school, the beginning of children's education in school, marks a major change in their lives. It changes completely, especially the mode of work and rest. Taking the first step in classroom Having got into the atmosphere of the lesson for the first time, the child finds himself in completely new conditions for him. These conditions are accompanied by the necessary long-term and sustained attention, limitation of physical activity, which makes the beginning of schooling one of the most difficult stages in a child's life. In addition, the beginning of schooling is one of the three critical periods of postnatal ontogenesis. It is this fact that needs to be paid attention to by experienced teachers in whose hands we will give our children. Therefore, before moving on to the characteristics of school age, let us dwell on the age of the first year of schooling.

The first year of schooling falls on a very important age period, characterized by accelerated morphological and functional transformations in the child's body. In the works of a number of authors Tsyganov G.V. (1996), Feldman R.I. (1996), A. Boraito Perez et al (1998) noted that the restriction of motor activity associated with an increase in the volume and intensity of mental load, especially with the inclusion of various forms of education in curricula, has a significant impact on the child's body, in including the cardiovascular system. So in many children there is a change in the T wave of the electrocardiogram, which indicates a decrease in metabolic processes in the myocardium, which in turn leads to a slowdown in the development of the heart muscle (G.V. Tsyganov, 1996). The P wave remains at a high level, which indicates a large sympathetic functional effect on the heart, and this allows you to keep the heart in constant tension even at rest. These changes are largely worrisome and the main reason for them is the decrease in physical activity in children in the first year of schooling.

By the time the child enters school, his height reaches ½ the length of the body of an adult (this period, 5-7 years in age physiology, is called the stretching period). The development of the organism of children of this age is characterized by heterochrony: the length of the body and the size of the head increase to a lesser extent than the length of the limbs of the arms and legs. The muscles of the hand reach a significant, but not final, development. Already by the time they enter school, their coordination becomes quite fine, which contributes to mastering the skills of drawing, modeling, however, as we have already indicated, this age is characterized by heterochrony, which leads to more intensive development of large muscles, which makes it difficult to perform fine precise movements. Therefore, it is at this age that spelling is difficult for children.

During the first year of study, morphological and functional development continues. nervous system. Despite the end of the morphological development of the cerebral cortex (the size of the cortical zones is 80% of the size of an adult), the instability of nervous processes is still characteristic of higher nervous activity during this period. In the behavior of children of this age great importance has imitation, creativity and initiative are shown.

To ensure the functioning of the brain as a whole, the degree of maturation of connections between different structures is important. The development of these connections does not end by the age of 6-7, the connections of the frontal regions with other areas of the cortex and subcortical structures are formed the latest (by the age of 15-16) (D.A. Farber et al. 1990). This means that although by the beginning of schooling the child's brain is structurally mature to a large extent, the connections of the cerebral cortex continue to develop. This happens under the influence of external influences: education and training. That is why games are of great importance for the development of children of this age. And as P.P. Lesgaft: “Play is an exercise through which a child prepares for life.”

At the age of 6-7 years, the skeletal system also undergoes changes. So, for example, at this age, the ribs grow, their position changes. Due to shape change chest caused by the growth of the ribs, the nature of breathing also changes: if earlier breathing was mainly “abdominal”, then from this age it becomes “chest-abdominal”. Thus, in the mechanism of inhalation and exhalation, the intercostal muscles begin to play a leading role.

This age is characterized by a high level of metabolic processes in all tissues of the body. At rest, the energy consumption by the body of a child of 6-7 years old is 2-3 watts / kg of body weight. This high level of energy consumption in children is provided by more intensive work of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. That. children of the first year of schooling are characterized by a high respiratory rate of 24-26 respiratory cycles per minute, a small breathing depth of 140-150 ml. Heart rate - 95-98 beats / min. The relative volumetric velocity of blood flow (per unit body weight) in children is 2 times higher than in adults, which is the reason for providing tissue metabolic processes with oxygen.

From the age of 6, rapid improvement of vasomotor reactions of peripheral vessels begins. That is why various hardening procedures are effective at this age.

So, the age of 6-7 years, the age of the first year of schooling is one of the main stages of adaptation to the new conditions of social existence.

Special studies have shown that some 6-7-year-old children who have not yet reached school maturity, during the entire academic year, poorly adapt to new conditions, show low working capacity and educational activity compared to "mature" peers. These qualities in "immature" children persisted for the next 3 years.

That is why, the question of how to improve, optimize the functional state of the nervous system of first-graders, how to reduce the negative consequences of neuropsychic stress becomes very strict.

It has been found that aerobic physical exercises have a particularly favorable effect on the central nervous system of children.

Studies (R.A. Abzalov, 1985, 1988; R.R. Nigmatullina et al., 1992; J.S. Harrell et al 1997; T.G. Kirillova 2000) have shown that the restriction of motor activity of a developing organism affects not only the central nervous system, but also on the functioning of the cardiovascular system. In children of the first year of schooling, insufficient physical activity hinders the growth of stroke minute blood volume and age-related decrease in heart rate. In the conditions of daily physical exercises in children of the first year of schooling, the development of fitness bradycardia, an increase in stroke and minute blood volume, and an increase in the efficiency of the pumping function of the heart occur (T.G. Kirillova, 2000). In addition, physical exercises are necessary to improve the regulation of the functional state of the central nervous system, increase its adaptive capabilities during mental and physical stress.

Junior school age. Subsequent years of schooling, i.e. in the primary grades, there is a slowdown in the rate of growth in length. This period falls on the age of 7-10 years and is referred to as the primary school age.

This period, according to A.A. Markosyan, is called the second childhood and is the most calm in the development of children: there is a smooth change in the structures and functions of the body. Despite the slowdown in growth rates, the length of the body increases more intensively than the mass.

During the development of children, the process of ossification of the skeleton occurs, i.e. replacement of cartilage with bone. The timing of bone tissue formation is closely related to certain stages of physical and sexual development and is a kind of its barometer. So, for example, the appearance of ossification points of the styloid process in girls and boys occurs at the age of 7, while in the pisiform bone, ossification points appear at 9 years old in girls and only at 11 years old in boys. By the age of 9-11, ossification of the phalanges of the fingers ends, and the pelvic bones develop intensively from the age of 8-10, especially in girls. At this age, due to changes in the structure of the ligamentous apparatus, cartilaginous and bone elements of the spine, the curves of the spine are gradually formed: by the age of 7, the cervical and thoracic curvatures are established, and only by the age of 12 - the lumbar. The spine is most mobile until the age of 8-9, as a result of which cases of posture disorders and spinal deformities are often noted in younger schoolchildren. All these features of the formation of the skeleton must be taken into account when building physical education classes in schools, as well as training processes. Excessive loads on the lower limbs, sharp shocks when jumping, especially on one leg, can cause displacement of the pelvic bones, lead to flat feet. Greater intensity and volume of physical activity at this age lead to significant energy consumption, which can lead to growth retardation.

At primary school age, muscles have thin fibers, are poor in protein and fats, contain a lot of water, so they need to be developed gradually, diversified. The ratio of muscle fiber types changes: the number and relative area of ​​red and intermediate fibers increase compared to white ones. So, at this age, you can begin the gradual development of endurance. In children 7-10 years old, the bulk of skeletal muscles consists of type I fibers. It is known that type I is characterized by a predominance of aerobic energy, which is associated with oxidation processes in mitochondria (Kositsky, 1985). The aerobic way of obtaining energy is more economical, it is retained for a long time than the anaerobic (oxygen-free), which leads to rapid fatigue.

The concentration and activity of enzymes responsible for oxidative processes in the muscles are also very high - almost as high as athletes

(D.A. Farber, 1990). The morphological structure of the muscles is such that each fiber is in close contact with the capillaries that deliver blood to the muscles, and with it oxygen and nutrients. Children of this age are characterized by a high need for oxygen despite the relatively low mass of skeletal muscles, the ratio of maximum oxygen consumption (MOC) at the age of 9-10 years is almost 2 times higher than that of adults. An interesting fact is that after this age - junior school, such phenomena are no longer observed.

A high need for oxygen is also characteristic of the tissues of internal organs, as well as the brain. At primary school age, a child's brain consumes twice as much oxygen as an adult's brain.

The structure and functional activity of the brain undergoes significant changes. At this age, the growth and structural differentiation of nerve cells ends. However, the functional indicators of the nervous system are still far from perfect. In the cortical-subcortical interaction, the cortex is in the lead. The maturation of the cerebral cortex is reflected in the EEG and indicates a high degree of formation of the state of rest for receiving and processing information coming from outside. Strengthening the influence of the cortex in relation to subcortical structures contributes to an increase in restraint in the manifestation of emotions, comprehension of behaviors. According to Swedish scientists, one cannot ignore the fact that the female brain functions differently from the male one. It has been established that girls learn information with amazing ease at primary school age. Therefore, the commission of the Ministry of Education came to the conclusion that they should study the exact sciences in the lower and middle grades, while boys - in the older ones.

During the primary school age, the prerequisites are created for the perfect recognition of visual stimuli, the selection of the most significant information is improved according to a predetermined instruction or internal impulse, which is primarily associated with increased involvement in the process of perception of the frontal sections of the cerebral cortex (D.A. Forber, 1990). The emotional characteristics of the stimulus and its greater informational significance begin to play a smaller role. Thus, primary school age is the age of transition from reflex emotionality to the intellectualization of emotions.

Despite the completion of the morphological development of the nervous system, the excitation process still prevails, which leads to rapid fatigue. High excitability, high plasticity of the nervous system contributes to better and faster mastering of breathing skills. At the age of 7-10 years, children can easily master technically complex forms of movement. At the same time, they have a pronounced transcendental inhibition and weak resistance to the effects of extraneous stimuli.

Age-related changes in the cardiovascular system in primary school age are characterized by uniformity, relatively slower rates of increase in the volume of the heart compared to the total lumen of the vessels. The mass of the heart at this age is 83-122 gr. One of the reasons for the relatively low blood pressure at the age of 7-10 years is the relatively large lumen of the precapillary and capillary network. Those. at this age is SD = 100-105 mm. rt. Art., DD = 53-62 mm. rt. Art. A regular decrease in heart rate with age is associated with the morphological and functional formation of the heart, an increase in systolic blood volume (by the age of 7 years, SD = 23 ml, by 10 years - 37 ml), the appearance and formation of centers of the vagus nerve. So, at the age of 7-8 years, heart rate = 80-92 beats / min, and by the age of 10 it is 76-84 beats / min.

With the emergence of vagal innervation and a further increase in its severity in ontogenesis, the activity of the heart becomes more economical, and the reserve of its performance and stability increases. Strengthening parasympathetic influences on the heart is closely related to the development of strong muscles. However, at primary school age, sympathetic influences on the heart are still more pronounced than parasympathetic ones. In children 7-10 years old, the contractility of the myocardium is still insufficient and its functional reserve is small, which is associated with the predominance of sympathetic influences on the heart. Despite the fact that the heart of younger schoolchildren can quite easily adapt to physical activity and quickly recover when resting to its original level, its activity is often unstable. As a result, children may experience various cardiac arrhythmias and sudden changes in blood pressure.

Up to 7-8 years of age, the indicators of the respiratory system continue to increase. Thus, the volume of the lungs increases by 8 times, and by the age of 10 - 10 times compared with newborns and is ½ of the lung volume of an adult organism. Moreover, the increase in volume occurs not due to an increase in the number of alveoli, but due to an increase in their volume. With age, the ratio of the frequency and depth of breathing changes. So, if at the age of 7 the respiratory rate is 23, by the age of 10 there is a decrease to 18-20 cycles per minute. The depth of breathing, on the contrary, increases: at 7 years old - 165 ml, and at 10 years old - 255 ml. Until the age of 8, the minute volume of respiration (MOD) in boys and girls has equal absolute values, and then it becomes higher in boys. This is due to the prepubertal differentiation of types of breathing - abdominal in boys and chest in girls. The relative value of the MOD in younger schoolchildren is higher than in adolescents and young men and is in the range of 3500 - 4400 ml. At this age, children can already control their breathing at rest. The breath holding time on exhalation is 26-39 seconds, on inspiration - 17-20 seconds.

However, with intense muscular work, breathing in children becomes uneven, superficial, more frequent than in adults, the maximum values ​​of pulmonary ventilation in 8-year-olds are only 30-40 l / min, in 10-year-olds 40-50 l / min, which is much less. is a consequence of the predominant influence of sympathetic influence on the body of a younger student.

Among the factors providing a sharp increase with age in the reliability of physiological systems, an important role is played by energy. In children of primary school age, the necessary daily energy consumption is very high, which is associated with a greater intensity of oxidative processes. Daily energy consumption is 2.400-2.800 kcal. A more intense energy metabolism in children prevents the accumulation of significant reserves of energy substrates in their tissues, i.e. reserve energy potential is relatively small. This makes all the functions of the child's body less reliable, therefore, the reaction of the body of younger schoolchildren to physical activity is marked by a significant originality, which is especially noticeable in terms of respiratory and circulatory functions. With a prolonged load, younger students have lower values ​​of the IPC. So, in boys of 8-9 years old, the IPC reaches only 1.5 l / min, and in girls - 1.0 l / min.

Oxygen consumption during low physical activity in younger schoolchildren is higher than in adolescents and even young men, while the percentage of oxygen use, i.e. its disposal, below. This means that when performing equal work in terms of volume, younger schoolchildren experience greater total energy expenditure and a lower oxygen pulse (the amount of oxygen in ml per heart beat): 8-9 year old boys - 8 ml / bpm, girls - 5.4 ml/sp. In children of this age, anaerobic productivity is also reduced, i.e. limited ability to work in oxygen duty. Younger schoolchildren stop intense physical activity when the KD is only 800-1200 ml. Another equally important factor of less reliability is the immaturity of the body's regulatory systems.

In this regard, and also because of the lack of reserves, any physiological reaction involves in vigorous activity not only those tissues and organs that are directly necessary for its implementation, but also others that can help achieve the ultimate goal. This generalized type of response is uneconomical and is not commonly seen in adults. In children, any tension in the body is always associated with an active restructuring of the work of almost all organs and systems, which entails a high price of adaptation in primary school age to changes in external conditions. As the majority of first-graders adapt to school conditions, the stress of physiological functions decreases. However, by the end of the school year, fatigue accumulates and tension increases again. It is interesting to note that girls experience significantly less stress and adapt more easily to new conditions. Most children, of course, safely go through a difficult period of adaptation to school, but for some, the associated stress is excessive. Such children of primary school age may experience a variety of functional disorders, such as growth retardation, changes in blood composition, decreased reactivity and resistance, as well as a decrease in physical and mental performance. All this negatively affects the ability to assimilate educational material, complicates the psycho-physiological state of the child, which is already in suspense. And only on the professionalism of teachers depends on the definition of the first signs of overstrain, the creation, if necessary, of a sparing regime by reducing the teaching load and assistance in the social sphere.

All these features of the organism of primary school age must be taken into account, first of all, for the subsequent harmonious development of children.

Middle school age. Adolescence is the years of transition to adulthood, both socio-psychologically and biologically.

Adolescence is characterized by the maximum growth rate of the whole organism, an increase in oxidative processes, an increase in the functional reserves of the body, activation of assimilatory processes, and an increase in the processes of morphological and functional differentiation of the brain and internal organs. To a large extent, the specificity of this age is determined by a biological factor - the process of puberty. Puberty is characterized by accelerated sexual development, which ends with puberty. Girls in puberty are 1-2 years ahead of boys, and there are also individual differences in terms and rates.

The process of puberty proceeds under the control of the central nervous system and endocrine glands. The leading role in it is played by the hypothalamic - pituitary system. In the very center of the base of the brain is the hypothalamus - a complex of nerve nuclei, which is evolutionarily the most ancient center for regulating the functions of internal organs and endocrine glands. This nerve center is directly adjacent to the main endocrine gland - the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus controls the activity of the pituitary gland, which, in turn, with the help of special hormones produced by it, controls most of the other glands in the body. These are the so-called tropic hormones, these include somatotropin, which activates growth processes, and gonadotropic, which increase the production of sex hormones in the adrenal glands and gonads. In the adrenal cortex, androgens begin to be intensively produced, which ensure the appearance and development of secondary sexual characteristics, affect the growth and development of muscles, and the process of maturation of the skeleton. Under the influence of pituitary hormones, the activity of the thyroid gland increases and metabolism changes. Entering the blood, hormones become powerful regulators of the growth and development of the body, lead to the formation of secondary sexual characteristics, i.e. those external properties that are characteristic of an adult and reflect his gender.

Puberty, accompanied by a significant increase in sympathetic effects on the body, an increase in the excitability of the cerebral cortex and an increase in the general reactivity of the nervous system, contributes to an increase in emotionality, causes a change in blood pressure, the rhythm of cardiac activity and respiration. Increased excitability and insufficient balance of the main nervous processes can contribute to a temporary disruption of the interactions of motor and autonomic functions, cause less rational adaptive reactions of respiration and blood circulation, which is especially pronounced during muscle efforts.

In adolescence, the skeletal system is in a state of increased growth. The long tubular bones of the upper and lower extremities, accelerates the growth of the vertebrae in height. The growth of the bones in width is insignificant. The spine is still mobile and supple. Therefore, due to the lag in the development of muscle tissue from the growth of the bone skeleton, under adverse conditions and at this age, various posture disorders or spinal deformities may occur. The use of excessive muscle loads accelerates the process of ossification and can cause a slowdown in the growth of tubular bones in length. By the age of 12-13, ossification of the wrist and metacarpus ends. The development of bone tissue is largely dependent on the growth of muscle tissue.

The muscular system develops rapidly during puberty. Excitability increases, functional mobility (lability) of muscles increases. They acquire the ability to reproduce a higher rhythm of irritations. By the age of 14-15, muscles in their properties already reach the data of adults. A sharp jump in the increase in total muscle mass occurs at 13 years of age. So, if at 8 years old muscles make up 27% of body weight, at 12 years old - about 29%, at 15 years old already about 33%. The diameter of the muscle fibers changes. But the functionality of the muscles is still much lower than in adults. So, in 12-year-olds, muscle strength is 65% compared to 20-30-year-olds, and in 15-year-olds - 92%. The productivity of work per unit of time in 14-15-year-olds is 65-70% of the productivity of adults. At this age, the development of the innervation apparatus of muscles, coordination of movements basically ends. Long-term performance of finely differentiated movements becomes possible.

Restructuring in the structure of skeletal muscles cannot but affect muscle performance. There is a slight increase in the ability of adolescents to perform cyclic work, especially in areas of high and moderate power, i.e. under such loads, where the main source of energy is the aerobic process. The power that a teenager can develop due to aerobics is growing, and the duration of continuous retention of a load of such power is also growing, i.e. workload. At this stage of puberty, general endurance training is effective, however, it must be remembered that pubertal changes in the body are still far from complete and care should be taken in increasing the intensity and volume of training sessions. On the other hand, the training of strength and speed-strength qualities during this period is ineffective, and the use of such loads in normal and non-workout forms should be limited. At this age, the maturation of fast musculoskeletal fibers and nerve spinal centers that control their contraction significantly reduces the time of motor reactions, improves dexterity and other manifestations of movement coordination. The angularity of movements disappears, therefore, at this age, adolescents begin to get involved in dancing (D.A. Farber et al., 1990).

Deep changes occurring in the cardiovascular system increase the risk of vegetative dystonia and adolescent hypertension. This must be taken into account both by doctors conducting medical examinations, and by teachers and parents who regulate the school load of adolescents. At this stage, the development of the heart is characterized by the most pronounced and rapidly growing changes. The mass of the ventricles increases especially noticeably, and more - the left one. The mass of the heart at this age is 258-260 gr. (300 gr. for an adult). The volume of the heart increases even faster, which is explained by the stimulating effect of the endocrine glands, and hence the increased protein synthesis in the myocardium. If 12-year-olds have an average heart volume of 460 ml, then 15-year-olds have 620 ml.

At this age, the heart is deficient, and in its structural parameters (except for size) it becomes similar to the heart of an adult. However, it should be remembered that often during puberty there is a violation in the harmony of growth in mass and total body size and an increase in the size of the heart, this occurs more often in adolescents with an accelerated type of development. In these cases, the activity of the heart is characterized by low efficiency, insufficient functional reserve and a decrease in adaptive capabilities to physical exertion. The increase in IOC during exercise occurs mainly due to an increase in heart rate with a slight increase in CO (less than when the size of the heart corresponds to the mass and total body size).

Children of middle school age are characterized by a noticeable increase in daily food requirements. Compared to primary school age, the daily requirement is 2,900 kcal. However given value is average, since it is necessary to take into account individual fluctuations in the daily requirement, depending on the physique of a teenager, on the level of basal metabolism per unit of time, etc. Not all body tissues expend energy equally. For example, fat cells and bone tissue are characterized by an insignificant exchange, while the heart, liver, brain, kidneys bear a significant share of the total energy costs of the body. The ratio of different tissues in the body is also individual in nature and depends on gender, age and physique. So in adolescents of the digestive body type, a significant part of the body weight is inert fat, the value of the basal metabolism per unit body weight is much lower than in representatives, for example, of the asthenic type. In addition, in adolescents of the digestive type, puberty ends on average 2 years earlier.

All changes in the process of puberty, namely in the motor functions of growth processes, metabolic processes associated with increased secretion of hormones, purposefully entail changes in brain function. These changes in the functioning of the brain in adolescence are primarily associated with a change in the activity of the hypothalamus, it is here that the centers are located that regulate the activity of the heart, blood vessels, metabolism, and respiration. In addition, many cells of the hypothalamus have the ability to secrete hormones.

In cortical-subcortical interaction, subcortical structures are in the lead. A significant increase in the activity of subcortical structures, especially at the initial stage of puberty, leads to negative changes in the mechanisms of perception and attention. And only at the final stages of puberty, when the sex glands begin to function actively, the activity of the hypothalamus decreases, and the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres begins to dominate in the cortical-subcortical interaction. This dominance leads to the restoration and development of the mechanism of voluntary attention and selective perception. In girls, this occurs by the age of 15, and in boys only by the age of 16-17.

Improving the systemic organization of the physiological functions of adolescence leads to an increase in the functional and adaptive organism of the student. The degree of stress of physiological systems during the school year decreases, fatigue decreases, mental performance indicators improve. However, the body of middle school children is still extremely unstable and prone to diseases and breakdowns. Therefore, during sports, strict medical control over the volume and intensity of loads should be exercised in order to prevent overwork and overstrain of the body. A sensitive, sparing approach to them is necessary especially in those periods when increased demands are placed on a growing and developing organism, when maximum mobilization of all its functions is needed (for example, during intensive mental work, participation in competitions). At the same time, it should be remembered that a rationally constructed sports training helps to overcome temporary contradictions and difficulties of adolescence, and physical inactivity aggravates them.

Teachers should remember that the emotions of adolescents are mobile, changeable, contradictory: hypersensitivity is often combined with callousness, shyness with deliberate swagger, excessive criticism and intolerance towards parental care appear. It is during this period that adolescents especially need and important the sensitive attitude of parents and teachers. You should not specifically draw the attention of adolescents to complex changes in their body, psyche, however, it is necessary to explain the regularity and biological meaning of these changes.

The period of adolescence is characterized by the emergence of a sense of one's identity, individuality. When they are not developed, a diffuse, vague “I”, role and personal uncertainty arises. A teenager, on the one hand, is still a child, and on the other hand, he is already connected to adult life, i.e. its internal position is dual, therefore this age is called “transitional” or “critical”. Teenagers are looking for social roles to follow. The established norms of adults are problematic situations. A teenager is looking for patterns of behavior in the environment that would help him to carry out his line of behavior. He tries on different ways of relationships with people, with peers, the manner of dressing. He pays close attention to his volitional qualities. Finds out the intensity of the responses of the environment in response to their forms of behavior, comments, statements, words, facial expressions, gestures, etc. the search activity of a teenager, as it were, is looking for obstacles in order to determine the limits of acceptable norms of behavior. A sharp discrepancy between the knowledge about oneself, the world around, acquired at an earlier age, and the knowledge that a teenager acquires on the basis of interaction with social reality, can lead to internal conflicts, to inadequate actions. A teenager, as it were, probes the norms of society, their stability, limits in different situations, their behavior within these norms.

Adolescents with deviant forms of behavior very often have not high level intellectual development. Often children who grew up in unfavorable family conditions do not have any pattern of behavior, they lack moral principles. Therefore, deviant forms of behavior arise - alcoholism, drug addiction, early prostitution, etc.

Adolescents are characterized by sharp mood swings due to physiological changes and their intermediate position in society. They are capable of both high emotional feelings - love, self-sacrifice, as well as aggression, negativism. During this period, sympathies, attachments, erotic feelings are formed. Models of sexual behavior are formed. There is a search for your path in life, your calling. Partnership is established in sexual, comradely, professional terms.

The success of education is very dependent on the physiological state, and during puberty, especially in girls, it is often not very good. In girls, the first menstruation is often accompanied by blood loss, negative reactions (vomiting, fever) and weakness. In order to maintain an active state, a teenager needs a certain diet with enough vitamins, alternation of work and rest, mental work and physical work. Due to the psychophysiological characteristics of adolescents, it is much more difficult at this age than at a younger age to attach them to work, to the ability to organize their activities, to overcome difficulties: many defects in upbringing that were made earlier affect the skills, abilities, personal qualities of adolescents. They have a great desire to feel like adults. However, puberty is not the end of biological maturation, much less social. Age-related transformations of physiological systems continue in senior school age.

Senior school age. Senior school age (15-17 years) is referred to as adolescence and is a crucial stage of development in the life of a student. It is believed that by the beginning of adolescence, the main physiological systems have already matured. However, recent data indicate that this is far from the case.

At that age, the growth and development of the organism continues, differing from previous periods with new features. So, the growth of the body in length slows down and growth in width clearly predominates. Gender differences become clearer. By the age of 17-18, not only growth, but also ossification of the bones is actually completed (complete completion of ossification of the phalanges of the toes, pelvic bones is completed at 20-25 years). At the age of 15-16, ossification of the upper and lower surfaces of the vertebrae begins. The spinal column becomes stronger, and the chest continues to develop successfully and can withstand significant loads by this age. The ossification of the foot and hand is completed.

Muscles in their composition, structure, properties approach the muscles of adults. The musculoskeletal system can withstand significant static stresses and performs quite a long work. The development of the muscular system occurs due to the growth of the diameter of the muscle fiber. Increasingly, there is an increase in muscle mass. In girls, there is a greater increase in body weight than the development of muscle strength. The muscles of young men are elastic, have good nervous regulation, their ability to contract and relax is quite large.

In adolescence, the development of the central nervous system is completed, the analyzer-synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex is significantly improved. Nervous processes are distinguished by great mobility, although excitation still continues to predominate over inhibition.

In older schoolchildren, working capacity is noticeably increased, oxygen divisions become more economical during physical exertion. The body's ability to work in debt is noticeably increased; increased anaerobic performance. Oxygen debt, in which older students stop working, approaching the level of adults.

MPC (anaerobic capacity) in young men increases unevenly. In the period from 15 to 16 years old, there is a distinct increase in the BMD, however, not as large as at 13-14 years old, and after 16 years old it is hardly noticeable. And in girls, already after 14 years, a certain stabilization of the BMD is observed, and its relative value can even decrease, which occurs due to the growth of adipose tissue. The relative value of the IPC is practically approaching the level of adults, at 15-17 years old it is 65-75 ml / atom / m (for average schoolchildren 56 ml / atom / m).

In older students, the body's resistance various factors the external environment is lowered, immunological, adaptive mechanisms are imperfect. This dictates the need for special hardening events, especially with young athletes, because. heavy loads, causing a certain tension in the activity of organs and systems, can, under unfavorable conditions, lead to a decrease in the body's resistance. For example, the predominance of loads in the lessons aimed at developing strength and speed-strength qualities contributes to a general increase in motor fitness, but the body's aerobic capabilities do not develop. On the contrary, endurance loads have a positive effect on the development of aerobic capabilities, but have little effect on the development of other motor qualities. Only a comprehensive development aimed at all-round development. It describes in detail each stage of school age, starting from the moment of school maturity, exactly when physical activity plays the most important role in improving the growing organism.

Improving the motor qualities leads to the optimal ratio of various aspects of the physical capabilities of high school students.

At senior school age, the structural maturation of the cerebral cortex continues: the ensemble organization of its nerve elements becomes more complex, the concentration of nucleic acids in brain cells increases, and the metabolic capabilities of neurons expand. The results of electrophysiological studies indicate that by the age of 17 the mechanisms of the functional organization of the brain are improved both at rest and during different forms mental activity. The role of the frontal areas of the cortex in the perception of external information increases, specialization of the hemispheres occurs in this process: at the stage of analyzing the physical characteristics of the signal, the right hemisphere predominates, their classification is carried out with the predominant participation of the frontal segments of the left hemisphere. Specialization of brain structures in perception provides a faster and more accurate response to impacts external environment. In adolescence, interhemispheric relations characteristic of an adult are formed during mental activity: the right hemisphere is mainly activated during visual-spatial activity, and the left hemisphere during speech and abstract. Along with this, the role of interhemispheric interaction is increasing.

The cardiovascular system also continues to develop at this age. In 16-17 year old boys, the average volume of the heart is 720 ml, and at the age of 18 it reaches the size of an adult heart. By this time, the ratio of the wall thickness of the left and right ventricles becomes the same as in adults (2.5:I). Sex differences in the size of the heart are especially pronounced: in girls, further growth of the heart muscles occurs two years earlier. The absolute and relative value of the IOC, as well as the value of CO, approaches the values ​​characteristic of adults. So, in 17 year olds, the IOC is 4 l / ml., CO - 60 ml.

Due to the continued increase in vagal tone, resting heart rate reaches adult levels. It should be emphasized that in all age groups, especially older ones, the heart rate of girls is noticeably more frequent than that of boys. The blood pressure rises, however, in young men its increase occurs gradually, and in girls it is slightly undulating, with the greatest development at the age of 15. Therefore, at this age, both systolic and diastolic blood pressure are higher in girls. At the age of 16-17, these differences are smoothed out. At the age of 18, the level of diastolic pressure becomes higher in boys than in girls. You should also take into account a number of factors affecting the magnitude of blood pressure: first of all, blood pressure depends on the physique - it is higher in hypersthenics. Moreover, the higher the level physical development and the degree of puberty, the higher the blood pressure. In older schoolchildren, as in children of middle school age, juvenile hypertension (DM more than 140 ml Hg) may occur, which is associated primarily with an increase in vascular tone due to hormonal hyperfunction in combination with other unfavorable factors. The maximum increase in heart rate in young men is achieved with greater power to work than in adolescents.

At senior school age, difficulties arise associated with the intensity of the study load and emotional stress, which is inevitable during the period of choosing a profession and preparing for entry into adulthood.

A large mental load, sometimes excessive amount of training tasks lead to the fact that in this period of development, which is so important for the formation of a healthy body and lifestyle, the physical activity of young men and especially girls is steadily declining, which is fraught with many negative consequences for their health in the future. Insufficient development of the mechanisms of physiological regulation of vegetative functions, lack of skill in their training is a direct path to the early development of pathological changes in the metabolism, cardiovascular, and immune systems of the body. The high morbidity of the adult population is largely a consequence of insufficient attention to the physical development of young men.

AT preschool age visual-figurative memory prevails in children, the child does not grasp semantic connections, assimilating the information received through purely mechanical repetition. Education at school contributes to the development of memory at the semantic and verbal-logical levels. During this period, the child learns to distinguish between tasks: where verbatim memorization is required, and where only general idea. This trains the ability to consciously manage your own memory, at the right time to reproduce what you see or hear. The child not only perceives information, but also learns to analyze it.

Attention and ability to focus

At a younger age, the student still does not know how to control his attention through volitional effort. He cannot force himself to focus on solving a complex problem for the sake of achieving a long-term result. Therefore, the correct (so-called “close”) motivation, which can be a positive assessment or praise of the teacher, has a significant impact here. They can also help. The child is just learning to concentrate. Gradually, it becomes more stable if the educational material is bright, visual and arouses interest in the child on an emotional level.

General perception

At a younger preschool age, the child's perception takes on the form of organized observation. Therefore, the teacher is faced with the task of organizing learning activities in such a way that children learn to perceive objects and phenomena, independently identifying their main features and properties. The most productive here will be the method of comparison, the use of which helps the student develop a deeper perception and reduce the number of errors.

Character traits

The main character traits of a younger student are impulsiveness and a tendency to act immediately. He does not weigh all the circumstances and does not think through the consequences. The child does not yet have sufficient will and cannot overcome all difficulties with perseverance and perseverance. In addition, many children will become stubborn and naughty, reacting in this way to the imposition of new demands that the school system makes. They protest against the need to do what needs to be done, not what they want to do. At the same time, the internal position of the child changes, he begins to claim a certain position among his peers, and relationships with classmates, along with academic success, affect his emotional sphere.

"Each age is a qualitatively special stage of mental development and is characterized by many changes that together make up the peculiar structures of the child's personality at a given stage of his development."

The age of the younger student, according to D.B. Elkonin and J. Piaget are 6-7 years old, i.e. begins with a crisis of 7 years and continues until the onset of adolescence (10-11 years according to J. Piaget, and 11-12 according to D.B. Elkonin).

By the age of 7, the child changes mentally. The main change is in behavior. The child begins to grimace for no reason, to be capricious; changes voice and gait. All behavior becomes "artificial". This is the main symptom of the crisis of 7 years. The main reason for this phenomenon is the loss of childish spontaneity, insufficient differentiation of external and internal life. The child looks the same as inside, so by appearance you can guess about his feelings and experiences. At the age of 7, an intellectual component begins to wedge between the experience and the act. Therefore, the child wants to show something with his behavior, to depict something that really does not exist. He begins to evaluate what he is, how he looks in the eyes of other people. Complicated relationships with adults. All the difficulties are grouped around the usual everyday rules. The child begins to see his life from the outside. Last baby image devalued, rejected. Tries to take on new responsibilities and take the position of an adult. The loss of spontaneity is an important gain in the course of personal development. Thus, the child manifests the arbitrariness and mediation of mental life. At 6-7 years old, the ability to mediate one's behavior goes beyond the limits of the game and extends to all spheres of life.

In addition, the child begins to understand and realize their own experiences. He begins to meaningfully navigate his own emotions and experiences. As a result, he develops exactingness towards himself, self-esteem, self-esteem is actively formed.

Actively expanding lifeworld child. New, more complex interests and a desire to find their place in life are being formed. The environment of social contact of the child is expanding. The main feature is subordination to certain norms and rules, awareness of who and how one should behave with. The main meaning of the life of a 7-year-old child is entry into a new, wider social community. There is an interest in one's future and a desire to take one's place in it (to become someone). As a child grows up, a new need arises. This is a need for socially significant activity. In modern conditions, this need is most naturally realized in the positions of the student.

Thanks to the internal position of the student, a unique social situation of development arises. In preschoolers, all spheres of relations "child-parent", "child-child", "child-caregiver" exist independently of each other. At primary school age, social situations of development acquire a hierarchical structure for the first time. A new system of relations appears, which determines all the others. This system is "child-teacher". It also determines the relationship of children with each other and the relationship in the "child-parent" system. In terms of communication with the teacher, the child must understand the special function of an adult teacher: the teacher is the bearer of knowledge, an example, "a standard for the student.

Optimal for a child entering school is an outwardly situational personal form of communication with adults. The problem of mutual understanding with adults dominates, relationships with peers change. Peers begin to be perceived not only as partners in games, but also as employees in a situation of solving a joint problem. The optimal is the cooperative-competitive level of communication (according to Kravtsov's classification). This situation development requires special leadership. It becomes a learning activity.

In any educational setting, children who graduate from elementary school differ significantly from those who enter first grade.

The younger student, as a subject of educational activity, develops and forms in it himself, mastering new methods of analysis (synthesis), generalization, and classification. In the context of purposeful developmental learning, according to V.V. Davydov, this formation is carried out faster and more efficiently due to the systemic and generalized knowledge.

Speaking about the mental readiness of the child for educational activities, first of all, it is necessary to consider the motivational-need aspect. It is important to know if the child has a need for new activity whether he wants to engage in it, whether he is interested in obtaining knowledge, which is the goal of the teaching.

The child is not always aware of the motives that prompt him to strive for school life.

In fact, these motives can be divided into 2 groups:

• 1. Desire to take a new position;
• 2. Motifs associated with external paraphernalia: knapsack, textbooks, etc.

In order to maintain a positive attitude of children to learning activities, it is necessary to fulfill the conditions: to include students in solving cognitive problems and to observe the style of behavior of the teacher with children. Only in this case will cognitive needs be preserved and developed, without which the true activity of teaching is simply impossible.

"Educational activity is the leading one at school age because, firstly, through it the main relations of the child with society are carried out; secondly, it is the formation of both the basic qualities of the personality of a school-age child and individual mental processes," emphasizes D.B. Elkonin.

The requirements of learning activity inevitably lead students to the formation of arbitrariness as a characteristic of all their mental processes. Voluntariness is formed as a result of the fact that the child does every day what his position as a student requires: listening to explanations, solving problems, etc. Gradually, he learns to do what he needs, and not what he would like. Thus, students learn to control their behavior.

The second important new formation is reflection. The ability to realize what he is doing, and to argue, justify his activities and is called reflection.

AT initial period teaching students of the 1st grade requires reliance on external objects, models, drawings. Gradually, they learn to replace objects with words, to keep images of objects in their heads. By the end of elementary school, students can perform activities silently. This means that their intellectual development has risen to a new level, they have formed an internal action plan (IPA).

In the process of learning, children learn to purposefully perceive objects. Arbitrary, purposeful observation is formed - one of the important types of cognitive activity.

In the educational activity of a younger student, such private activities as writing, reading, working on a computer, etc. are formed. Highlighting the characteristic features of children of this age, it should be noted that children are different. Learners differ from each other not only different levels preparedness for the assimilation of knowledge, but also individual characteristics, for example, with different types of the nervous system. Individual differences also apply to the cognitive sphere of children: different sensory development (the ability to differentiate colors, see the shape, size of an object, etc., which must be constantly formed, taught to observe and compare); memory (the child quickly remembers what attracts him; in educational activities, the younger student needs arbitrary memory); thinking and speech (thinking is visual-effective, but it can also be visual-figurative, speech is quite well developed), imagination (in a younger student, it is mainly used actively), attention (involuntary and voluntary). The educational activity of a younger student cannot do without voluntary attention.

As K.D. Ushinsky, attention is the only door of our soul through which everything passes, from the outside world that only enters consciousness.

This period in the development of the child is very important, as the social situation changes, he acquires a new social role. The child masters his new opportunities and rights, learns social rules. The family at this age remains the main social institution for the baby. He identifies with significant adults (parents) and gains new social experience in communicating with peers.

During the period of primary school age, the development of such mental functions as memory, thinking, perception, and speech is carried out. At the age of 7, the level of development of perception is quite high. The child perceives the colors and shapes of objects. The level of development of visual and auditory perception is high.

At the initial stage of training, difficulties are identified in the process of differentiation. This is due to the still unformed system of analysis of perception. The ability of children to analyze and differentiate objects and phenomena is associated with an observation that has not yet been formed. It is no longer enough just to feel in the system of schooling. Perception acquires purposeful forms, echoing with other mental processes and moving to new level- the level of arbitrary observation.

Memory in the period of primary school age is distinguished by a bright cognitive character. A child at this age begins to understand and highlight the mnemonic task. There is a process of formation of methods and techniques of memorization.

This age is characterized by a number of features: it is easier for children to memorize material based on visualization than on the basis of explanations; concrete names and names are stored in memory better than abstract ones; in order for information to be firmly entrenched in memory, even if it is abstract material, it is necessary to associate it with facts. Memory is characterized by development in arbitrary and meaningful directions. On the early stages learning is characteristic of children involuntary memory. This is due to the fact that they are not yet able to consciously analyze the information they receive. Both types of memory at this age are greatly changed and combined, abstract and generalized forms of thinking appear.

Periods of development of thinking:

1) the predominance of visual-effective thinking. The period is similar to the thinking processes in preschool age. Children are not yet able to logically prove their conclusions. They build judgments on the basis of individual signs, most often external ones;

2) children master such a concept as classification. They still judge objects by external signs, but they are already able to isolate and connect individual parts, uniting them. So, by summarizing, children learn abstract thinking.

A child at this age masters his native language quite well. The statements are direct. The child either repeats the statements of adults, or simply names objects and phenomena. Also at this age, the child gets acquainted with written language. Mental neoplasms in this period of child development include:

arbitrariness, reflection and internal plan of action.

With the advent of these new abilities, the child's psyche is prepared for the next stage of education - the transition to education in the middle classes.

The emergence of these mental qualities is explained by the fact that, having come to school, children are faced with new requirements that teachers presented to them as schoolchildren.

The child should learn to control his attention, be collected and not be distracted by various annoying factors. There is a formation of such a mental process as arbitrariness, which is necessary to achieve the set goals and determines the child's ability to find the most optimal options for achieving the goal, avoiding or overcoming the difficulties that arise.

Initially, children, solving various problems, first discuss their actions step by step with the teacher. Further, they develop such a skill as planning an action for themselves, i.e. an internal plan of action is formed.

One of the main requirements for children is the ability to answer questions in detail, to be able to give reasons and arguments. From the very beginning of training, this is monitored by the teacher. It is significant to separate the child's own conclusions and reasoning from the template answers. The formation of the ability to independently evaluate is fundamental in the development of reflection.

Another new formation is significant - the ability to manage one's own since the child entered school, he did not have to overcome his own desires (run, jump, talk, etc.).

Once in a new situation for himself, he is forced to obey the established rules: do not run around the school, do not talk during the lesson, do not get up and do not do extraneous things during class.

On the other hand, he must perform complex motor actions: write, draw. All this requires a significant self-regulation and self-control from the child, in the formation of which an adult should help him.

Municipal budgetary educational institution

Odintsovo middle comprehensive school № 17

with in-depth study of individual subjects

Features of the development of children

primary school age

Teacher: Barsukova

Elena Evgenievna

Odintsov

Features of the development of children

primary school age

Transition to schooling is not easy even for well prepared children. With the arrival of the child in school, it begins completely new stage in its development, which is characterized by the emergence of a new social position: the child becomes a student, i.e. a participant in educational activities that require a great effort of strength, will, and intellect. addictive little student in many respects, to new school requirements for him takes place gradually, not always smoothly and is necessarily associated with breaking the existing psychological stereotypes.

First of all, the mode of life is changing. Now every day you need to get up on time on an alarm clock in order to have time to do exercises, wash, get dressed, eat and not be late for school for the start of classes. We must learn to count and value time so that it is enough not only for study, but also for games and walks. Moreover, he will be able to rest after he does the main thing - prepare for tomorrow's school day.

There is also a restructuring of value orientations. Previously, the child was praised for the fact that he quickly eats, washes, dresses. Now it turns out that all this is necessary in order to have time to fulfill, first of all, educational duties. Often they begin to scold him for what he used to be praised for: “You are playing again, instead of practicing.” And the attitude of adults and peers towards him will be largely determined by his academic success.

The main thing for a child is education. You can’t forget about it, put it off, doing something more interesting, refuse if there is no mood. The degree of regulation of behavior also changes:in the lesson: you can’t do extraneous things, be inattentive, demand special treatment for yourself, ask questions without the permission of the teacher, be offended by his remarks.

This far from complete list of problems faced by the child shows that readiness for school does not directly depend on the level of his knowledge.

For some reason, adults often convince children that learning at school will be easy, and they get the idea of ​​​​learning as a new exciting game. This is serious work that requires the effort of all internal forces about the most capable student. Unprepared for such stress, the child begins to despair and feel disgust for learning as soon as he encounters the first difficulties. This would not have happened if he knew that they are natural and not only completely surmountable, but also necessary, necessary in order tolearn to be a student.

It is necessary to explain to the child that all people, including adults, encounter difficulties, that any work (and study too!) involves difficulties, only then it is interesting. Moreover, difficulties should attract the child, and overcoming them should bring joy and satisfaction.

It is very important that the student equally responsibly treats all school subjects.

I would like to warn parents against a common misconception - focusing on excellent grades. Parents often tell their child that they should only get good grades at school, as bad grades are given to the negligent and incapable. As a result, the children get the impression that the main task of the student is to get excellent grades. There is a substitution of goals: the main thing is to get a good mark, in every possible way to avoid a bad one, and not the desire for knowledge. The child must understand that the main thing is not the mark itself, but what it is set for. After all, in itself it is neither good nor bad: the mark makes it possible to see your mistakes, mistakes and achievements. The deuce received for unlearned educational material must be discussed with the child and try to explain what it suggests, what he does not know, which rule he did not apply. For "2" can not be punished. What is needed here is a particularly calm, benevolent, constructive approach in order to outline concrete measures to overcome the backlog.

With fives, things are sometimes more complicated than with twos. After all, good grades can be ensured by the fact that some parents go through part of the school curriculum with their children in advance. In this case, "5" is easy to get, but they will not be associated with the discovery of new knowledge, with overcoming difficulties. If a good mark is the result of a child's great efforts, it is necessary to help him see his progress in knowledge and skills, to rejoice at what he has learned, what he has learned.

Brought up in preschool childhood interest in the environment, the desire to learn as much as possible becomes the basis for the formation of the need for learning, the desire to overcome difficulties along the way. However, we often encounter such a paradox: the active cognitive interest shown by the child in Everyday life, as if extinguished in the conditions of compulsory and organized schooling, he does not capture the main sphere of his life - the educational one, the purpose of which is precisely in daily knowledge, the discovery of something new, previously unknown. It is important to be aware of this danger and do everything so that the child is actively involved in learning, is personally interested in acquiring knowledge, experiences pleasure and joy from educational work, i.e. you need to turn the obligatory “must” into “I want”.

No less important is genuine and constant attention to all the school affairs of a small student, to his teaching.

The goals that we set for the child should be specific, understandable, and cause a desire to achieve them at all costs. The child is little inspired by distant, vague prospects. For example, we say: “If you learn to read, you can read books yourself.” A child who is still barely able to read in syllables may at the same time experience not joy, but disappointment: it seems to him that he will lose the great pleasure that reading an adult gives him. So is it worth striving for? When he sets affordable goals for a child, and he is convinced that he copes with them day after day, this instills in him faith in his abilities, fills his teaching with meaningful content and contributes to the development of cognitive interest. Let the child talk aloud when solving a particular problem that has arisen. Let's try to show him that one and the same goal can be reached different ways. In this way, we will draw his attention to the methods of activity and arouse interest in them.

Even peers present their demands. The child begins to worry and tries to think over the situation: will he be able to study like everyone else, will the guys in the class be friends with him, will they offend him with words or actions. Interpersonal connections arise, mutual exactingness and mutual evaluation appear, a feeling of sympathy for a peer becomes stable (he defends his right to sympathy for another child and can oppose his opinion to the opinion of an adult if he does not approve of his choice). During this period, adults should pay attention to how children address each other, and stop unacceptable forms of treatment.

Positive relationships with other children are of great importance for the younger student, so one of the main motives for his behavior is the desire to earn the approval and sympathy of other children, and at the same time he seeks recognition from an adult. Thanks to this, the child tries to behave correctly, because adults are interested in him. In unfamiliar situations, the child most often follows others against his wishes, and often common sense. At the same time, he experiences a feeling of strong tension, confusion, fear. Peer-following behavior is typical for this age. This is also confirmed in the classroom: the child raises his hand after everyone, although he does not know the answer to the question, he is not ready for the answer.

The child tries to assert himself among his peers, to be better than everyone else. This is manifested in the readiness to complete the task faster and better, to read the text. If the child is not capable or finds it difficult to fulfill what is expected of him, then childish whims arise. Whims are often repeated tearfulness, unreasonable masterful antics, acting as a means to attract attention, to take precedence over adult asocial forms of behavior.

Parents, in order to avoid their occurrence, try to make demands that are feasible for each child so that he is able to fulfill what is expected of him.

With all these significant changes that have taken place, parents should not forget that first-graders remain very emotional, have increased excitability, so they quickly get tired, their attention is very unstable, and their behavior largely depends on the external situation. Children do not yet know how to work in a team. The new, unusual environment at school does not affect everyone in the same way: someone experiences psychological stress, someone reacts to novelty with physical stress, which may be accompanied by sleep disturbance, appetite, weakening of disease resistance.

It is necessary to develop the independence of the child, to awaken in him a sense of responsibility for the cause, a desire to seek and correct his own mistakes. In those cases when he finds it difficult, he needs help, suggest the path of search, find it together.

Psychological characteristics of children of primary school age

Psychologists all over the world talk about a certain general infantilization of children, that is, modern seven-year-olds are personally younger than their peers ten years ago. Despite the selection, many children still skip letters and confuse the multiplication table. But the most unpleasant thing is that most of today's children do not like and do not want to study, and that even after graduating from school and passing exams at the university with the help of tutors, they experience enormous difficulties in the process of further education and often do not receive the coveted higher education. In addition, they, almost like elementary school students, write illiterately and do not always remember the multiplication table correctly.

This state of affairs is no secret to anyone. It is not for nothing that almost every new Minister of Education is trying to implement a new education reform, which always affects primary school students. However, if you look at all of the above through the eyes of a psychologist, then one of the main causes of problems and difficulties primary education is that educators and teachers have little idea psychological features children of primary school age.

The outstanding psychologists of the twentieth century, L.S. Vygotsky and J. Piaget, strongly emphasized that a child is not a small adult, that he has a different logic and a different perception of the world around him. Therefore, no innovations and new original objects can qualitatively change anything, unless they are orientedon the characteristics of modern junior schoolchildren.

Psychologists associatesolving the problem of psychological readiness withcrisis of seven years.

Based on the understanding of the crisis as the result of a smooth accumulation of changes, we can say that 7 years -another age crisis. The child is on the border of a new age period.

It is at this age that the child for the first time clearly begins to realize the relationship between him and others, to understand the social motives of behavior, moral assessments. He is aware of his place in the world of social relations.

The desire of the child to occupy a new social position leads to the formation of his inner position as a schoolboy. Significant activity learning becomes. At school, the child acquires not only knowledge and skills, but also a certain social status, his self-awareness changes (the birth of a social "I"). There is a reassessment of values, interests and motives are associated with learning.

At the same time, there is an intensive biological development of the child's body. At the heart of this restructuring is an endocrine shift. Such a physiological restructuring requires a lot of stress from the child's body in order to mobilize all the reserves. During this period, the mobility of nervous processes increases, excitation processes predominate, and this determines such characteristic features of 7-year-old children as increased emotional excitability and restlessness. Physiological transformations cause Big changes in the child's mental life. The formation of arbitrariness (planning, implementation of action programs, control) is advanced to the center of mental development.

The crisis also occurs in the emotional and motivational sphere of the child. Children are sensitive to the influences of the surrounding conditions of life, impressionable and emotionally responsive.

In this period, two defining motives of behavior come into conflict: the motive of desire “I want” and the motive of obligation “must”. If the motive of desire always comes from the child himself, then the motive of obligation is more often initiated by adults.

Depending on the influence that parents and surrounding adults have on the child during this crisis, the further development of the child's individuality, the formation of his self-esteem, and the filling with new value orientations will depend.

Exactlythe crisis of seven years crowns the development of the child at preschool age and opens the period of primary school age. You can even say:the child went through the crisis of seven years, learned to generalize his emotions - he is a schoolboy, did not go through the crisis of seven years - he is psychologically a preschooler.

The younger schoolchild differs from the preschooler (this isthe essence of the problem of psychological readiness of children for schooling ) by the fact that he loses his immediacy, that he learns to anticipate his emotions, and if these emotions were negative character, then he learns to intentionally and voluntarily move away from these situations. That is, firstly, he begins to realize his emotions. Second, learn to manage them. He acquires the ability to avoid situations that are undesirable for him and at the same time produce situations that are positive.

B. Elkonin, discussing the problem of readiness for school, in the first place put the formation of prerequisites for learning activities. Among the most important prerequisites, he attributed the child's ability to focus on a system of rules in work, the ability to listen to and follow the instructions of an adult, and the ability to work according to the model.

The child's capacity for voluntary behavior speaks of psychological readiness for schooling, tk. voluntary behavior ensures the full functioning of all mental functions and behavior in general. Based on practice, it is precisely the insufficient development of arbitrariness that lies behind many actual educational difficulties, behind poor discipline, inability to work independently, and so on.

Depending on the level of mental development of the child, i.e. on how developed the voluntary sphere (the ability to listen, to accurately follow the instructions of an adult, to act in accordance with the rules, the development of voluntary attention, voluntary memory), speech sphere, formed certain types thinking, how socially developed the child is, etc. and will depend on the level of psychological readiness for school.Those. psychological readiness to school is a certain level of mental development of the child.

What determines the psychological age of a child? The psychological age of the child and his characteristics are determined by the central psychological neoplasm.

According to L.S. Vygotsky,central psychological neoplasm primary school age is a mental function that determines the specifics of the development of all other mental functions and processes - voluntary attention.

Primary school children can implementarbitrary shapes communication if theycame out of the crisis 7 years , if they are able to build their relationships with others not directly, but guided by a certain semanticcontext situations.

It is at this age that the child first clearly begins torealize relations between him and others, to understand the social motives of behavior, moral assessments. He is aware of his place in the world of social relations. The child in this period begins to lose childish spontaneity in behavior.

Having passed the crisis of seven years, the child psychologically becomes a junior schoolchild. At the same time, he already has the ability to see the same situation in different ways, depending on what “figure” and what “background” he singles out in it. However, this ability will remain an unrealized opportunity if it is not purposefully developed. That's whythe most important task of education in primary school is the task of developing voluntary attention.

Voluntary attention arises only in purposeful activity. A person focuses on the final result of his work, shows will, consciously keeps this attention on the performance of this work. The emergence of voluntary attention necessarily implies goal setting. It is possible that it is the process of goal-setting that “turns on” attention for effective management the course of the activity.

No calls and instructions will lead to the actualization of attention if the student does not feel real interest in the task being performed. Other motives can also force a child to be attentive: to get a good grade or approval from adults, to achieve recognition in the class, to avoid punishment for a bad grade, etc. But the most valuable motive in this case, of course, is cognitive. It manifests itself in the form of a child's interest in learning. Enthusiasm for the work leads to the emergence of voluntary attention.

KD Ushinsky wrote: “... Remember that not everything can be entertaining in learning, but there are certainly boring things, and there should be. Teach your child to do not what he takes, to do for the sake of pleasure, to fulfill his duty.

L.S. Vygotsky callsmemorycentral psychological function junior school period of development.

The memory of a younger schoolchild, compared with the memory of a preschooler, is more conscious and organized. There is a transition from involuntary to voluntary memorization. L.S. Vygotsky strongly emphasized thatcentral psychological function becomesarbitrary, that is, controlled, consciously controlled and mediated. These characteristics cannot be attributed to the memory of preschoolers. A preschooler remembers directly and, most often, emotionally.

During the transition to primary school age, qualitative changes occur in the child's memory. First of all, she becomesindirect - the child learns to memorize using a variety of means for his memorization.

Two important laws of memory developmentat primary school age:

Firstly , for the development and successful use of mediated memorization, it is better to have a not very good mechanical memory.

mechanical memoryhinders the development of higher, mediated forms of memory.

A child with a good mechanical memory needs, first of all,understand the meaning. Do not memorize words, do not reproduce material, but understand the meaning of a particular text, film, content. In this case, the child already becomes independent of specific words and sentences, formulas and models. At the same time, it is important thatmeans played minor role and did not distract the child from the content of the memorized material.

It is impossible to litter, clog memory with unsystematic reading, memorizing any material in a row. When organizing memorization, it is important to develop in students not just the desire to memorize as much as possible, but the ability to memorize material in a certain system, which is achieved by working to comprehend the text.

Not everything requires long-term storage in memory; the material must be analyzed from this point of view as well. If the spelling of words, historical facts require memorization "for life", then the plot and numerical data of a mathematical problem, a number of texts for reading do not need to be saved for a long time, and there will be no trouble if they are soon forgotten.

Secondly, memory in primary school age is closely related to attention.

The main line of memory development at primary school age - it turns from mechanical into semantic.

For the development of semantic memory, it is necessary to teach children to memorize logically related meanings. To do this, the teacher needs to teach children how to properly organize the memorization process, break the material for memorization into sections or subgroups, highlight strong points for assimilation, and use logical diagrams. Not only the teacher, but also the parents, should encourage semantic memorization and combat meaningless memorization. Understanding is necessary condition memorization - the teacher fixes the child's attention on the need for understanding, teaches the child to understand what he must remember.

It should also be noted the uncritical nature of children's memory, which is combined with uncertainty in memorizing the material. Uncertainty often explains cases when junior schoolchildren prefer verbatim memorization to retelling. Therefore, the next condition for the development of semantic memory is to contribute to the development of children's confidence in themselves and their own abilities. The more knowledge, the more opportunities to form new connections, the more memorization skills. Another condition is the constant reliance on visual-figurative material (when drawing up a plan in the form of a sequential series of pictures), i.e. on visual-figurative memory, which at this age is developed quite well.

Why are children having according to data psychological research a high level of development of mental abilities, already in elementary school they show a negative attitude towards school, low academic performance.

It turns out that the main reason is the weak development of cognitive interest or its absence at all. The majority of underachieving children are “intellectually passive” children, i.e. children who are not accustomed to think actively have no interest in mental activity. The role of interests is very great. Only a child who has an interest in mental activity is able to turn the knowledge gained into deep and solid. Interests develop and improve the quality of mental activity, affect the overall development of the child, activity in learning, create favorable conditions for the development of all mental processes.

Parents at home should try to maintain the curiosity of the child through homework with elements of creativity, i.e. addition of the obligatory part of the task with their findings taken from additional literature.

The creative potential of even a 7-year-old is much higher than that of an adult. But it is necessary not only to have creative potential, but also the ability to use it. Creativity alone will not provide a child with real achievements in the future.

Therefore, it is necessary to strive to stimulate the child's motivation for the manifestation of creativity, to create conditions for the development of creative thinking.

Today we are going to talk about homework. Homework is hard work.

Firstly Most of the students do not have the skills to work independently. Here we are talking not only about the learning ability, but also about the lack of the ability to act independently.

Secondly , children use time irrationally (children who do their homework on their own, without parental control, usually spend up to 70% of their time irrationally).

Parents who give their children the opportunity to be completely independent in the preparation of lessons are also wrong, as are those who overprotect their child. Some adults say: “The lessons are for you, not for me, so you do it!” Others kindly ask: “Well, what are we asked today?” - and open the textbook and notebooks. In the first case, resentment arises at the indifference of relatives to such important school matters and the quality of the tasks performed suffers, and in the second, irresponsibility is formed, confidence that everything will be done well and without much effort.

Teaching children to learnteach them how to organizenot only yourmental learning activity(in the process of which the assimilation of new knowledge takes place), but also itsoutward behavior(so that mental work occurs as successfully as possible). We have a long and difficultwork on the formation of the student's quality of arbitrariness- the ability to manage one's own behavior so that a person becomes the master of his desires, and not vice versa.

Adult help should be manifested in creating conditions for the child to achieve independent success. Give up constant guardianship and control - otherwise the child simply cannot learn to act without your help.

The child gets used to the fact that everything is chewed on him, “served on a silver platter”, and he himself does not show any initiative. By constant guardianship, parents, as it were, block, paralyze the actions of the child. In fact, the mother or grandmother helps the child to stay in the childish position of the inept and helpless.

Many parents are focused only on direct assistance. In educational work, they take on the functions of planning, analysis, control. Help is provided with the “do as I do” attitude. Such a strategy deprives the child of experience, the right to make mistakes, delays the formation learning skills. The child must be given the opportunity to independently solve their own learning tasks. Possible failures will mobilize his attention at school, increase his responsibility.

Only in some cases, parents can provide direct assistance (if the child was not at school or came with clearly articulated difficulties). But even then it is necessary to start with leading questions so that the child makes the best of his efforts. It is difficulties that develop in children the abilities necessary to overcome them, it is in overcoming difficulties that the development of the child is carried out.

Accustom the child to the time limit, suggest that the task must be done in a certain time. The passage of time can be observed on the hourglass.

The willingness of an adult to come to the rescue and the desire to always be there are not the same thing.

You should not take on the responsibility of the child to prepare the workplace, to collect educational things and supplies for classes at school.

The child needs to complete the task on his own, but at the same time he must constantly feel that adults are not indifferent to his work, he needs kind and smart help from you (from time to time, in fact, and always - emotional psychological support).

So, benevolence, patience, faith in the strength of a little schoolboy, the conviction that he is good and capable - these are the main tips that will help organize homework children.

Mistakes that both parents and children can make.

1. Parents limit themselves to the question: “Did you do your homework?” This is not a test. And the kids soon figure it out.

2. Children do the exercise and then learn the rule, not the other way around!

3. Adults overly control the student or strive to do everything for him.

4. Parents forget to praise their child for a job well done.

5. If the child has not mastered the topic, parents begin to explain in their own way. The child is lost, does not know who to listen to: the teacher or the parents.

How to avoid mistakes?

1. If a child misses vowels, it is good to write him down in the choir. In singing, vowels are drawn out and are not lost when writing. The rhythmic pattern of the song will teach him to listen, and therefore, to correctly write dictations.

2. When reading, do not rush the child. He should be able to pronounce the words accurately. Occasionally ask questions: “How do you understand this?” Be sure to read aloud at night, one at a time. Be sure to praise your child!

3. When completing tasks in the Russian language, pay attention to completing the task in full. Try to explain the rules in your own words.

4. It is good to hang a memo on preparing lessons above the table.

5. A memo is needed not only for children, but also for parents!

Don't stand behind!

Do not anger the child and do not be angry with him.

Be patient!

Let the child himself evaluate the quality of the work, and you help find the reasons for the failures, tell him that tomorrow it will turn out better, instill in him confidence in his abilities.

6. Take the position of a benevolent adviser.

Parental "DO NOT" subject to the regime of the day

IT IS FORBIDDEN:

Do not forgive the mistakes and failures of the child.

Waking up the child at the last moment before leaving for school, explaining this to yourself and others with great love for him.

Feed the child before and after school with dry food, sandwiches, explaining to yourself and others that the child likes such food.

Demand from the child only excellent and good results in school if he is not ready for them.

Do your homework right after school.

Deprive children of outdoor play because of poor grades in school.

Wait for dad and mom to start doing homework.

Sit in front of the TV and computer for more than 40 - 45 minutes a day.

Watch scary movies and play noisy games before bed.

Scold the child before going to bed.

Do not show physical activity in your free time from lessons.

Talking to a child about his school problems is evil and instructive.

PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF AGE

Age Features

How do they affect the development of the child

How to use with a child

Brain

By weight, it is 50 g less than that of an adult, but it is significantly different in structure: the activity of the subcortex predominates, but the frontal lobes are not formed

(frontal lobes are responsible for complex activities, speech, control of body movements)

Difficulties in performing logical tasks, complex types activities

Break complex action into simpler ones; in solving logical problems, show the solution path (method); use various schemes, drawings-tips

Bones

Are in the process of active growth

The spine, fingers, phalanges, wrists are not ossified, and therefore, children cannot sit upright for a long time and write for a long time

Regularly remind about correct posture, do exercises for fingers, hands and spine

muscles

Well developed large groups

Poorly developed small groups

It is convenient to make large movements, while the movements are inaccurate (you can observe when the child is in a hurry, everything falls out of his hands)

Inability to do small, jewelry work

Be loyal to falling pens, other school supplies

Develop fine motor skills, and with it speech (development fine motor skills directly related to the development of not only speech, but also thinking, writing)

Nervous system

unstable

Excitation and inhibition of the nervous system is associated with its low mobility

The balance between nervous excitation and inhibition did not work out

Fatigue, inability to perform monotonous work for a long time, quickly distracted, inability to switch from one type of activity to another

Haste in action, inaccuracy, inaccuracy

Organize safe, active recreation; use a variety of dynamic pauses; use a change of activity more often

Attention

• involuntary, selective

unstable

Focused on objects due to their attractiveness

Get distracted quickly

Use bright, visual, unusual and unexpected material; connect auditory, kinesthetic, and visual perception systems

Thinking

concrete

does not differentiate the features of the subject into essential and non-essential

generalizes according to the principle of appointment

often find it difficult to establish causal relationships

analysis and synthesis visual

highly developed imagination

The child thinks mainly in visual representations, on which he relies in the course of reasoning.

Use visual and everyday material, diagrams, symbols; specify questions

Memory

mechanical

involuntary

Often children memorize the text verbatim

It is easy and simple to remember what in itself is associated with emotions, actions, with what causes a smile, interest

Develop logical ways of memorization; it is very important to teach ways to get results (to teach to listen, observe, remember, think); use of non-standard tasks and questions; creating extraordinary situations to attract the attention of children

Feelings and perception

indiscriminately

holistically

direct

It is better perceived that which is brighter colored

Cannot split into units

Use selectively brightness in visibility; take into account the individual characteristics of the child

Relationship with adults

The teacher is the bearer of requirements, social norms, estimates

Significant figure for the child, emotional attitude; suggestibility

Relationship with peers

Determined by learning activities and teacher assessment

Attitude towards yourself

There is no personal self-assessment, there is an assessment of actions that depends on the assessment of adults and is associated with educational activities

More fair to encourage; know more about the individual characteristics of the child

Behavior

impulsive, spontaneous

Not restrained in emotions; fulfillment of momentary desires; great need for approval and tactile contact

Regulate behavior through workload, assignments, solving a specific problem

Sensitive period

(the most favorable period for the development of certain mental functions)

For the development of labor and everyday skills; for the development of humane feelings (attention, care, pity)

Develop work and life skills

Literature for the teacher:

Voskoboynikov V.M. How to identify and develop a child's abilities. St. Petersburg: Respeks, 1996

Lokalova N.P. How to help a low performing student. - M.: Axis - 89, 2003

Sonin V.A. Psychological workshop: Tasks, studies, solutions. - M., 1998

N.I. Derekleeva. New parent meetings: 1-4 grades. - M.: VAKO, 2006

Kaleidoscope parent meetings. Ed. E.N. Stepanova.- M.: TC Sphere, 2002

N.I. Derekleeva. Parent meetings: 1-4 grades. - M.: VAKO, 2004

L.I.Salyakhova. Parent meetings: 1-4 grades. – M.: Globus, 2007

25 modern themes of parent-teacher meetings at school. Handbook of the teacher. V.P. Shulgina.- Rostov n / a: "Phoenix", 2002

N.A. Maksimenko. Give children love. - Volgograd: Teacher, 2006

L.I.Salyakhova. Desk book class teacher. 1-4 classes. – M.: Globus, 2007

Parent meetings in 1st grade. Check everything with your heart. Author-compiler V.N. Maksimochkina. - Volgograd: Teacher, 2008

Parent meetings: 1st grade. – M.: VAKO, 2011

M.M. Bezrukikh. Difficulties in learning in elementary school. - M., AST: Astrel, 2004

O.V. Perekatieva, S.N. Podgornaya. Contemporary work with parents in elementary school. - Publishing Center "Mart", Moscow - Rostov-on-Don, 2005

M.M. Bezrukikh, S. Efimova, B. Kruglov. Why is learning difficult? Family and school. Moscow, 1995

M.M. Bezrukikh, S.P. Efimova, B.S. Kruglov. How to help a first grader study well. - M., AST: Astrel, 2003

M.M. Bezrukikh, S.P. Efimov. The child goes to school. - Moscow, Academy, 1996

Literature for parents:

Kolyada M.G. Cheat sheet for parents. _ Donetsk: BAO, 1998

Gippenreiter Yu.B. Communicate with the child. How? –M., AST: Astrel, 2010

Gippenreiter Yu.B. We continue to communicate with the child. So? –M., AST: Astrel, 2010

I.A.Bartashnikova, A.A. Bartashnikov. Learn by playing. - Kharkiv. Folio, 1997

L.Mashin, E.Madysheva. Educational games. Mysterious stories. - Kharkiv. "Folio", 1996 E. N. Korneeva. Why are they so different? - Yaroslavl. Development Academy. -2002

E.N. Korneeva. Oh, these first-graders! .. - Yaroslavl. Development Academy. -1999

L.B. Fesyukova. Fairy tale education. - Kharkiv. Folio, 1996

B.S. Volkov, N.V. Volkova. How to prepare your child for school. - M .: "Os-89", 2004

A.I. Barkan. His Majesty the CHILD.- M.: "Century", 1996

G. Monina, E. Panasyuk. preschool boom. Yekaterinburg: U-Factoria, 2007

E.N. Korneeva. Children's whims. - - Yaroslavl. holding academy. -2002

A.L. Korobeynikova, I.M. Enaleeva. Smart book for smart parents. - Publishing house Vozyakova. Yekaterinburg, 2004