General characteristics of emotions, their types and functions. Classification of emotional phenomena according to C

Emotions are positive and negative. This is known to those who have experienced emotions at least once, i.e. all. But the concepts of positivity and negativity of emotions require some clarification in terms of their gradation. For example, the emotions of anger, fear, shame cannot be unconditionally categorized as negative, negative, but may arise in a state of so-called mixed feelings.

simple emotions allow you to establish the significance of the conditions for meeting actual needs, caused by both real and imaginary situations.

Joy- a positive state associated with the ability to fully satisfy the current need.

Astonishment - a state caused by a strong impression, striking surprise, unusualness, strangeness.

Fear arises as a result of a real or imaginary danger that threatens the life of the organism, the person, the values ​​\u200b\u200bprotected by it (ideals, goals, principles, etc.).

Anger - dissatisfaction, indignation, irritation that occurs when needs or expectations are not satisfied.

Pleasure - satisfaction from pleasant sensations, from satisfying experiences.

Shame arises in a person when he commits acts that are contrary to the requirements of morality, degrading the dignity of the individual.

Disgust - sharp hostility, combined with disgust.

Contempt - the attitude caused by the recognition of someone or something unworthy, not deserving of respect, vile, morally low, insignificant.

Suffering - negative emotional state, the cause of which is the possession of true or apparent information that the ability to meet the most important needs of life is absent or difficult.

Feelings - complex, well-established attitudes of the individual to what she learns and does are associated with the work of consciousness, can be arbitrarily regulated, and play a motivating role in human life and activity.

No less popular is the classification by content.

Moral - one of the ways of normative regulation of human actions in society. These include: approval and condemnation.

Moral - duty, humanity, benevolence, love, friendship, patriotism, sympathy, etc.

Immoral - greed, selfishness, cruelty, etc.

intellectual are manifested in the process of cognitive activity, in solving new, difficult problems. These include: curiosity, curiosity, surprise, bewilderment, satisfaction with the solution found, doubt.

aesthetic human experiences arise when perceiving works of art, beautiful objects, natural phenomena, etc., stimulate the social activity of a person, have a regulatory influence on his behavior and influence the formation of personality ideals.

These include: beautiful, sublime, delight, pleasure, etc.

Passion - having a strong and sustained positive feeling for something or someone.

Mood - stable states of medium or very low strength, which act for a long time.

affects- rapidly flowing, short-lived emotional states accompanied by pronounced organic and motor reactions.

Frustration - a state that occurs when faced with unexpected obstacles and obstacles on the way to achieving a goal, which interferes with the satisfaction of needs.

Stress- a state of psychological overstrain that occurs during emotional overload nervous system.

Inspiration occurs when the purpose of the activity is clear, and the results are accurately presented, moreover, as necessary and valuable.

From duration and intensity flowing emotional states are divided into weak and strong (rapidly flowing).

Weak - mood - a long emotional state that does not reach significant intensity, captivating a person for some time and affecting the activity and behavior of a person.

Strong - affect. An important specific feature of affects is their occurrence in response to an accomplished event.

S.L. Rubinstein identified two main features that distinguish the mood.

• 1. They are not subject, but personal.
• 2. This is not a specific and concrete experience, but a general state that is related to one specific situation or fact.

Classifications according to the effect on the body are also known:

sthenic - raising the activity, vigor and activity of a person;

asthenic- Decreasing activity, weakening energy.

By duration:

short-term; long.

Flow form:

sentiments;

affects;

passions;

Classification according to V.I. Slobodchikov, E.I. Isaev:

• ? affects;
• ? passions;
• ? stress;
• ? feelings;
• ? specific emotions;
• ? moods.

Important to remember!

Processes emotional perception, awareness and development behavioral responses perform many parts of the brain.

limbic system. J.-W. Paretz suggested that the singular cortex, entorhinal cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and thalamus form a circle that is involved in the mechanisms of motivation and emotions. And the psychologist P.-D. McLean (MacLean, 1949), including the amygdala in this system, called it limbic.

Hypothalamus. Scientists Aldous and Fobes (Olds, Fobs, 1981) discovered the pleasure center. When stimulated, a person experiences pleasure. In the lateral hypothalamus, two types of neurons have been identified that respond differently to emotional situations. The first type is motivational (maximum activity in motivational behavior was found). The second type is reinforcing, since these cells are activated upon reaching the desired (on reaching the goal).

Tonsil (amygdala) plays a role in several types of emotional behavior: aggression, fear, disgust, maternal behavior. This structure is responsible for the behavioral, autonomic and hormonal components of the conditioned emotional response by activating the neural circles located in the hypothalamus and brain stem.

Sensory association cortex analyzes complex complex stimuli and transmits information to the amygdala.

Orbitofrontal cortex included in the assessment of action sequences. It is not directly involved in the decision-making process, but translates these decisions into practice, in relation to a specific situation. Her central connections to diencephanol and the temporal region provide her with information about the emotional significance of the signal. Dorsal connections with the singular cortex allow it to influence both behavior and autonomic changes.

Singular bark provides a link between the decision-making structures in the frontal cortex, the emotional structures of the limbic system, and the brain mechanisms that control movement. It is the focus of sensory and efficient systems.

• Stolyarenko LD. Fundamentals of psychology. 3rd ed., revised. and additional Rostov-na/D.: Phoenix, 2000.
• Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Fundamentals of psychological anthropology. Human Psychology: An Introduction to the Psychology of Subjectivity. M.: School-Press, 1995.

Classification of emotions

By sign:

Emotions are divided into positive and negative . An example of the first is joy and interest, an example of the second is fear, anger, rage.

By intensity and duration:

Mood- a stable emotional state of a person, coloring for some time all his experiences. Unlike feelings, moods do not have a clear focus on some object.

Emotion(in the narrow sense of the word) - an experience that arises in a person in the course of satisfying an urgent need.

Feeling- the highest, culturally determined human emotion associated with a particular object. Feeling plays a motivating role, directing a person's activity in a certain direction.

higher feelings people are divided into:

intellectual feelings - feelings associated with human cognitive activity. They arise in the process of educational and scientific work, as well as creative activity in various arts, sciences and technologies.

Moral feelings - feelings that reflect a person's attitude to the requirements of public morality. They are associated with the worldview of a person, his thoughts, ideas, principles and traditions (sense of duty, patriotism, love for the motherland).

aesthetic feelings are feelings that arise in a person in connection with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of his aesthetic needs. These include feelings of the beautiful and the ugly, the sublime and the base, etc.

Passion - purely human emotional state. This is an alloy of emotions, motives and feelings, concentrated around a certain type of activity or subject.

Affect- intense, but short-term emotional outburst, capturing the entire human psyche. The affect leads to the loss of a person's sense of reality, imposing on him the need to perform certain actions, which is accompanied by visible changes in his behavior. Most often, these are negative states that lead to violent emotional discharge and entail a feeling of fatigue, depression, and depression.

According to the degree of mobilization of the body:

Emotions according to the effect on the body are divided into sthenic , which activate the body and cheer up (anger, rage, delight), and asthenic (longing, sadness, sadness, shame), relaxing a person and suppressing the activity of the body.

By specific content (modality):

Joy – a positive emotional state associated with the ability to fully satisfy an urgent need. It is based on the experience of sensual pleasure. In humans, joy is a social feeling, the manifestation of which is a smile. The emotion of joy is important for the mental and somatic health of a person.

Astonishment – an emotional reaction to sudden circumstances that does not have a clearly expressed positive or negative sign. It is caused by a sharp change in the situation and can cause subsequent positive emotions - if the circumstances turned out to be favorable, or negative.

Suffering- negative emotional state associated with the information received about the impossibility of meeting the most important vital needs.

sadness – negative emotion associated with the experience of a negative fact (death, separation, disappointment).

Anger – a negative emotional state, negative in sign, as a rule, proceeding in the form of an affect, and caused by the sudden appearance of a serious obstacle in the way of meeting important needs for the subject.

Disgust – a negative emotional state caused by objects, contact with which comes into sharp conflict with the moral or aesthetic principles and attitudes of the subject.

Contempt– a negative emotional state that occurs in interpersonal relationships and is generated by a mismatch of life positions, views and behavior of the subject with life positions, views and behavior of the object of feeling.

Introduction ................................................ ................................................. ....... 3

1. Definition, classification and functions of emotions .............................................. 5

2. Types of emotions............................................................... .............................................. eleven

3. Theory of emotions.................................................... ........................................... fourteen

Conclusion................................................. ................................................. nineteen

List of references .............................................................................. ........ 20

Introduction

A person in the process of life experiences many different states: pleasant, unpleasant, intense, barely noticeable, long, short. There are various mechanisms in the psyche that serve different purposes: the result of the action of the senses is the sensation of heat, pain, hunger, thirst, visual images, auditory, etc.

The result of the mechanism of attention is its concentration and higher sensitivity of perception of some objects compared to others. A higher concentration of attention is accompanied by states described by the words composure, concentration.

Lack of attention is described as distraction, relaxation, inattention. The degree of volitional concentration is described as tension or lack of will, etc. Fatigue, cheerfulness, drowsiness are physiological states of the body.

Among this variety it is necessary to single out emotional phenomena. They are also quite different. There are weak, easily changing experiences that can arise on the most insignificant occasions, these are moods. There are long-term, stable complex states that include many components: various kinds of knowledge, emotions, intentions. These are feelings such as love, friendship, jealousy, happiness. There are unconscious emotional states that arise as a result of a combination of certain external conditions and do not depend on a person's knowledge of these conditions. And there are actually emotions, conscious states that arise as a result of a person’s assessment of some event or phenomenon regarding the possibility of using this phenomenon for some of their goals or satisfying their needs.

The same emotional modality (kind of emotion) can be a mood, an unconscious emotion, or an emotion. Thus, fear may arise in a person at the sight of certain insects that have never harmed him, which he may never have seen in his life, and to which other people are completely indifferent.

Fear can arise from the sudden rapid movement of an object or a loud sound. This is an unconscious emotion, which is probably due to the specific reaction of some neurons to the appearance of an insect or to the movement of an object. This reaction is not realized by a person and occurs regardless of his experience and desire.

A weak form of fear can be a mood and expressed as inexplicable anxiety. And, finally, the emotion of fear can arise as a conscious reaction to danger. The origin of this state is different in different cases, although phenomenologically it can be felt by a person in the same way.

The purpose of the work: to classify and identify the types of emotions.

This goal is solved by disclosing the following main tasks:

1. define, classify and function emotions;

2. characterize the types of emotions.

1. Definition, classification and functions of emotions

Man is not only a primate, mammal, vertebrate, chordate and multicellular, but it is also the most evolved, civilized, social animal that communicates with its own kind every day and does something, experiencing different feelings and emotions, such as anger, contempt, disgust, distress (woe-suffering), fear, guilt, interest, joy, shame, surprise (according to K. Izard's classification).

Emotions (French emotion - excitement, from Latin emoveo - shake, excite), the reactions of humans and animals to the impact of internal and external stimuli, which have a pronounced subjective coloring and cover all types of sensitivity and experiences. Associated with satisfaction (positive emotions) or dissatisfaction (negative emotions) of various needs of the body. Differentiated and stable emotions that arise on the basis of the highest social needs of a person are usually called feelings (intellectual, aesthetic, moral).

Emotions - special kind mental processes that express a person's experience of his relationship to the world around him and to himself. The peculiarity of emotions is that, depending on the needs of a person, they directly assess the significance of objects and situations acting on him. Emotions serve as a link between reality and needs. As a rule, emotions arise due to the primary activation of specialized (emotional) brain structures. Excitation of some structures (naturally or with the help of direct electrical stimulation) causes the appearance of a positive emotional state (positive emotions), which the body seeks to strengthen, prolong or repeat. Activation of other structures is accompanied by the appearance of a negative emotional state (negative emotions), which the body seeks to eliminate or weaken.

Emotions (from Latin emovere - to excite, excite) are states associated with the assessment of the significance for the individual of the factors acting on him and are expressed primarily in the form of direct experiences of satisfaction or dissatisfaction of his actual needs. They are one of the main regulators of activity. The basic form of emotions is the emotional tone of sensations, which is a genetically determined experience of a hedonic sign that accompanies vital impressions, such as taste, temperature, pain. Another form of emotions are affects, which represent very strong emotional experiences associated with active behavior to resolve an extreme situation. In contrast to affects, emotions themselves have a pronounced binding to rather local situations, which was formed in vivo. Their emergence can occur even without the action of the actual situation of their formation; in this aspect, they act as guidelines for activity. The main feature of human emotions is that a special emotional language has been developed in socio-historical practice, which can be transmitted as some generally accepted description. On this basis, there is, in particular, an emotional response to works of art that have a fairly rigid link to a particular historical era.

According to the classification of emotional phenomena A.N. Leontiev distinguishes three types of emotional processes: affects, emotions proper and feelings. Affects are strong and relatively short-term emotional experiences, accompanied by pronounced motor and visceral manifestations. In a person, affects are caused not only by factors affecting his physical existence, but also by social factors, for example, the opinion of the leader, his negative assessment, and the sanctions adopted. A distinctive feature of affects is that they arise in response to a situation that has actually occurred. Actually, emotions, unlike affects, are a longer current state, sometimes only weakly manifested in external behavior. They express an evaluative personal attitude to an emerging or possible situation, therefore, unlike affects, they are able to anticipate situations and events that have not actually occurred yet. Actually emotions arise on the basis of ideas about experienced or imagined situations. The third type of emotional processes are the so-called object feelings. They arise as a specific generalization of emotions and are associated with a representation or idea of ​​some object, concrete or abstract (for example, a feeling of love for a person, for the Motherland, a feeling of hatred for an enemy, etc.) Objective feelings express stable emotional relationships.

According to P.V. Simonov, feelings are emotions that arise on the basis of social and spiritual needs in the origin of emotions. Simonov considers anxiety as a reaction to a low probability of avoiding an undesirable impact. A special place among emotional phenomena is occupied by the so-called general sensations. So, P. Milner believes that, although it is customary to distinguish emotions (anger, fear, joy, etc.) from the so-called general sensations (hunger, thirst, etc.), nevertheless, many in common and their division is rather conditional. One of the reasons why they are distinguished is the different degree of connection between subjective experiences and the excitation of certain receptors (temperature, pain). On this basis, such states are usually referred to as sensations. The state of fear, anger is difficult to associate with the excitation of any receptor surfaces, therefore they are referred to as emotions. Another reason why emotions are contrasted with general sensations is because they occur irregularly. Emotions often arise spontaneously and depend on random external factors while hunger, thirst, sexual desire follow at regular intervals. Currently, the attention of researchers is attracted by another category of emotional phenomena - mood. Moods do not have a specific target like emotions do, and neither do any specific reactions. Therefore, it is less specific than emotion. In addition, subjective experiences associated with mood are less intense compared to emotions.

According to the definition of A. Isen, mood is a flow or flow of ideas, thoughts and images retrieved from memory. They are united by a common tone: positive or negative. Numerous experimental data suggest that mood is the result of the action of both rude and imaginary events or information extracted from emotional memory. Clinical studies point to the key role of hormonal and biochemical factors in the genesis of mood. When a mood reaches a certain threshold, it becomes conscious and can be explained, including its causes. This can serve as an impetus for the transformation of mood into emotion. Mood affects a person's behavior. The same phenomenon can simultaneously cause both emotion and mood, which can coexist, influencing each other. If any emotional reaction develops rapidly in time, then the mood created by it can last for hours, days and weeks. Human actions are not impartial. Therefore, emotion, as a subjective experience, is present in every activity, every reflex. In the structure of behavior, as in a functional system, emotions play a key role. Allocate leading and situational emotions. They are associated with different phases of behavior. Leading emotions signal to a person about the dissatisfaction of his needs and encourage him to search for the target object, stimulating certain behavior. The emotional memory of successful actions in the past aimed at satisfying a similar need also has a motivating force. Situational emotions that arise as a result of assessments of individual stages or behavior as a whole prompt the subject to either act in the same direction or change behavior, its tactics, and ways to achieve the goal.

Researchers, answering the question of what role emotions play in the life of living beings, identify several regulatory functions of emotions: reflective (evaluative), motivating, reinforcing, switching, communicative. The reflective function of emotions is expressed in a generalized assessment of events.

An example is the behavior of a person who has received a limb injury. Focusing on pain, he immediately finds a position that reduces pain. Emotion, as a special internal state and subjective experience, performs the function of assessing the circumstances of the situation based on the need that has arisen and an intuitive idea of ​​the possibilities of satisfying it. Emotional evaluation is performed at a sensitive level. Example: we never estimate the true nutritional need for proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, salts, etc. The emergence of a feeling of hunger is already enough. The evaluative, or reflective, function of an emotion is directly related to its motivating function.

S.L. Rubitspein noted that emotion already in itself contains attraction, desire, aspiration directed towards or away from an object. Emotion performs a search zone where a solution to the problem, satisfaction of the need will be found.

Emotional experience contains the image of the object, the satisfaction of needs and its biased attitude towards it, which prompts a person to act. When faced with the situation again, these emotions allow you to anticipate, anticipate events and encourage you to act in a certain direction. There is also a reinforcing function of emotions. It is known that emotions are directly involved in the processes of learning and memory. Significant events that cause emotional reactions are quickly and permanently imprinted in memory.

The switching function of emotions is that they often induce a person to change his behavior. This function is most clearly revealed in extreme situations, when a struggle arises between the natural human instinct for self-preservation and the social need to follow a certain ethical standard(struggle between fear and duty, fear and shame). The outcome depends on the strength of motives, on the personal attitudes of the subject.

An important function of emotions is the communicative function. Facial expressions, gestures, postures, expressive sighs, changes in intonation are the “language of human feelings” and allow a person to convey his experiences to other people, inform them about his attitude to phenomena, objects, etc.

2. Types of emotions

Emotions play a crucial role in self-awareness, in the formation and maintenance of a sense of self-identity. The theory of differential emotions considers emotion as the most fundamental way of organizing sensations. According to this theory, the following emotions can be distinguished: interest, joy, pleasure, surprise, sadness, grief, anger, disgust, fear and anxiety, embarrassment, shame, guilt, conscience, love, etc.

Let's look at some of these emotions.

The emotion of interest has played a very important role in human evolution, performing a variety of adaptive functions throughout the history of its existence. Interest in the unknown is the basis of research, cognitive activity and has importance for the processes of attention, memory and learning. The emotion of interest plays an important role in motivating success. Interest is also necessary for the development of skills, it is he who motivates human activity aimed at improving innate abilities.

The theory of differential emotions distinguishes experience joy from satisfying a physiological need. The experience of joy is characterized by a sense of satisfaction and a sense of self-confidence, in joy a person feels loved and deserving of love. Smiling and laughing are expressions of joy. From an evolutionary point of view, the emotion of joy, together with the emotion of interest, ensures a person's position in society. Bradbury (1969) found that socially active people, whose emotional experience is more diverse, are more likely to experience positive emotions.

The psychological basis of sadness can be a variety of problematic situations that we encounter in everyday life, unmet primary needs, other emotions, as well as imagery and memory. The main and universal cause of sadness and grief is the feeling of loss that occurs as a result of the death of a loved one or separation from him. The experience of sadness is usually described as despondency, sadness, feelings of loneliness and isolation. Although the emotion of sadness can have a very detrimental effect on a person, it is characterized by a lower level of tension than other negative emotions. The emotion of sadness performs a number of psychological functions. Experiences unite people, strengthen friendships and family ties; sadness inhibits the mental and physical activity of a person, and thus gives him the opportunity to think about a difficult situation; sadness encourages a person to restore and strengthen ties with people.

Anger, disgust, and contempt are separate emotions, but they often interact with each other. Situations that activate anger often activate the emotions of disgust and contempt to some extent. In any combination, these three emotions can become the main component of hostility. In anger, a person feels much more confident than with any other negative emotion. Anger mobilizes the energy needed for self-defense. Self-confidence and a sense of one's own strength stimulate a person to defend their rights. Unlike manifestations of aggression, the experience and expression of anger can have positive consequences, especially in cases where a person maintains control over himself.

The experience of fear is felt and perceived by people as a threat to personal safety. Fear encourages people to make efforts to avoid the threat, to eliminate the danger. Fear can be caused by both physical and psychological threats. The experience of fear is accompanied by a feeling of insecurity, insecurity, inability to control the situation. However, fear also has an adaptive function, forcing a person to look for ways to protect himself.

The experience of shame is accompanied by heightened self-awareness. This interferes with understanding the situation and increases the likelihood of inadequate reactions to it. The ability to shame means that the individual is inclined to take into account the opinions and feelings of the people around him, thus, shame contributes to greater mutual understanding between people and greater responsibility to society. In addition, shame encourages a person to acquire various skills. A person who is unable to resist the experience of shame is almost certainly doomed to sadness and even depression. Adequate response to the experience of shame can be considered a person's readiness for self-improvement.

Guilt plays a key role in the development of personal and social responsibility, in the process of becoming a person. The experience of guilt is the result of self-punishment. A person experiences guilt as a result of violation of some accepted ethical moral or religious standards. The experience of guilt is accompanied by a gnawing feeling of being wrong in relation to another person. The development of guilt and the formation of conscience are the most important stages in the psychological maturation of the individual.

Love is fundamental to human nature. The emotional bond between children and parents, between siblings, and between spouses is an integral part of our evolutionary heritage. Love embraces social relations, strong attachment, emotional connection. Love is characterized by interest and joy, and love relationships can evoke a whole range of emotions.

3. Theory of emotions

Ancient Chinese teachings about mental phenomena were built on the basis of organismic ideas that arose in a tribal society and continued to exist in one form or another in the traditional mentality. The human being was considered by the Chinese as part of the cosmos, as an organism within an organism. It was believed that the mental structure of the human body has the same number of structural levels as the holistic cosmos, the internal states of a person are determined by his relationship with the outside world, and certain mental phenomena resonate with what is happening on the corresponding planes of the universe.

The mental component of a person was expressed in ancient China in the concept blue- "a heart". However, the Chinese did not adhere to a strict heart-centric concept of the psyche. There was also an idea that the heart is one of the organs in the whole organism, which correspond to certain mental correlates. The heart is only the most important of them, in it, as in the “core” of the body, the resultant of mental interactions is concentrated, which determines their general direction and structure. Therefore, in Chinese, many hieroglyphs denoting psychological categories contain the hieroglyph “heart” in their composition.

V.M. Kryukov notes that this hieroglyph was not found in the Yin script, and the appearance of the concept blue in Western Zhou ritual texts “practically coincided with the emergence of the category de, which hieroglyphically represents the result of the fusion of the “heart” sign with the Yin graphic prototype de". In the context of a new type of worldview established in the Early Zhou and “delimiting the external and internal aspects of the ritual”, which opened up the “spiritual depth of the communicative act”, “the use of the sign blue in the role of a semantic determinant gave rise, along with de, a whole class of terms related to the psycho-mental sphere - babysitter("remember"), van("forget"), chi("afraid"), mao("admire"), mu(“strive”), etc.”

Having this semantic determinative is also a hieroglyph qing, which denotes the sensory-emotional sphere of a person. The extreme manifestation of emotions, affectivity is “passions, desires”, denoted by the hieroglyph yu, having a double spelling - with and without a “heart”.

These sensory-emotional concepts are often contrasted with the concept syn(“essence, nature, nature, character [of a person]”), also denoted by a hieroglyph, which includes the sign “heart”. The latter suggests that this opposition is not ontological and is carried out on a single basis. The opposition of "essence" (nature- syn) and “sensuality” (emotions- qing, desires -yu) - this is “what lies on the heart”, or rather, what happens in the mental organism, considered in the context of the structure-forming function of the heart.

On the specific relations of "nature" ( syn) of a person and “desires” ( yu) is said in Li ji (Notes on rituals) in the chapter Yue ji (Notes on music). By its origin, the “nature” of a person is unemotional, “pure” from all passions. They arise in a person when he comes into contact with objects of the external world in the process of their knowledge. Then the peace of “nature” is disturbed, it starts to move, and feelings of “love, attraction” arise ( hao) and “hatred, disgust” ( at). These feelings are so strong that under their influence a person can lose the original purity of his “nature” and follow the path of vice.

A person is born pure, this is the nature bestowed on him by heaven. Faced with the outside world, his nature sets in motion, and desires are born in it. When objects and phenomena are known, feelings of love and hatred towards them are formed. If love and hatred are not moderated from within, and the knowledge of the environment lures him into the world of things and he is not able to cope with himself, then the qualities bestowed on him by heaven perish. After all, the surrounding world affects a person endlessly, and the love and hatred of a person have no limit, and in this case the surrounding world approaches a person, and he changes under his influence. When a person changes under the influence of the surrounding world, the qualities bestowed on him by heaven perish in him, and he exhausts himself in desires. It is then that feelings of rebelliousness and rebellion, pretense and deceit are born, all sorts of obscene things are done and riots are arranged. Then the strong begin to threaten the weak, the populous kingdoms begin to rape the sparsely populated, the knowledgeable begin to deceive the foolish, the daring to inflict suffering on the timid, those suffering from epidemics and diseases do not receive care, the old and the young, orphans and widows have no shelter - all this is the path of great disorder. .

Despite the fact that “nature” is given to a person by Heaven, in relation to the outside world, when it comes to the perception of the surrounding reality, it acts as a passive, Yin principle. Being “corrupted” by the presence of pernicious passions, “nature” becomes an active, yang principle, the cause of “all kinds of obscene deeds”.

Similar relationships between the natural essence of a person and his sensual-emotional sphere are given in Xun Tzu. The main difference is that this text gives a more optimistic view of the meaning of sensory manifestations in human life. In the presence of "heart understanding" feelings allow you to navigate in the world around you and carry out proper activities.

The various names applied to people are as follows: that which has an innate, natural character is called natural properties; that which is [the result of] the correspondence of the natural properties of a person and things - when the spiritual [in a person] comes into contact with things, reacts [to their irritations], and this happens without outside interference, naturally - is called mental properties. Love and hate, peace and anger, sorrow and joy as [manifestations] of mental properties are called feelings. When the heart helps these natural senses to distinguish [truth from falsehood], this is called reflection. When a person thinks, and his abilities translate these thoughts into deeds, this is called human activity. When a person accumulates thoughts, gets used to applying his abilities, as a result of which he achieves success, this is called [fruitful] activity.

It is important to emphasize that in "Li chi" and "Xun-tzu" mental phenomena are considered as a product of the relations of "nature" ( syn) person and “things” ( at) of the outside world, i.e. as something mediating their interaction. This makes it possible to apply in the reconstruction of the ancient Chinese theory of emotions the scheme of subject-object relations, which was used in clarifying the meanings of trigrams and virtues. de. At the same time, it must be remembered that the “nature” of a person as a subject is not hypostasized by the ancient Chinese, but represents only a deeper state of the mental organism than emotionality.

This approach is intended to show that the structure of the sensory-emotional sphere in ancient Chinese theory is described by trigrams. The ideal option would be to find a list of emotions that correlate with the eight trigrams. But there is no such thing. However, even in the heterogeneous lists of emotions scattered over different texts, their initial systemic nature is visible, based on which it is possible to reconstruct a basic set of emotions that is not inferior in its harmony to modern European theories of emotions.

Attempts to define a set of "fundamental" or "basic" ("basal") emotions have a long tradition in Europe. Many psychologists have done this. In all cases, a different number of emotions were offered, and the most various ways their classifications. For example, a selection of lists of emotions from the article by A. Ortoni, J. Clore, A. Collins “Cognitive structure of emotions” is given.

Table 1

There have been attempts to classify emotions based on combinations of more primitive manifestations of the psyche. The most famous of these classifications is, perhaps, the classification of W. Wundt, who proposed to consider all emotions in the space of three dimensions, defined by the axes “pleasure-displeasure”, “excitation-calming” and “tension-resolution”. The classification, to which the following reconstruction of the emotional representations of the ancient Chinese will fit, is also based on the idea of ​​three primary psychological axes, but only their specific definition will be different.

Conclusion

The problem of emotions is great and multifaceted, far from all the issues related to it have been resolved today; much of what is known is debatable. Nevertheless, philosophers and psychologists, physiologists and doctors were able to largely dispel the fog of mystery and mysticism that interfered with the knowledge of human emotions and feelings. A modern person in his actions often has to be guided mainly not by emotions, but by reason, but in many life situations the influence of emotions on human behavior is very great.

So, emotions are the psychological reactions inherent in each person to good and bad. These are our anxieties and joys, our despair and pleasure.

Emotions provide us with a craving for experience and empathy, maintain an interest in life in the world around us. And I, based on various theories and experiences of scientists, tried to talk about emotions and their need for a person. After all, without emotions, life would be poor and uninteresting!

List of used literature

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Ilyin E.P. Emotions and feelings. - St. Petersburg, Peter, 2001. - p.31

Gozman L.Ya. Psychology of emotional relations. - M., Moscow State University, 1987. - p.58

Depending on the conditions and external circumstances, the properties of the influencing stimuli and many personality traits, she has a variety of emotions that are classified and described by different authors, in different terminology and for different reasons. In psychology, there is no (and it is hardly possible to have) a single and generally accepted classification of emotions (as well as many other higher psychological formations). Therefore, we only designate some well-known approaches and theoretical positions.

S. L. Rubinstein identified three main levels of manifestations and development of the emotional sphere of the individual:

• organic affective-emotional sensitivity (pointless physiological or organic feelings, emotional background, general coloring, sensual tone);
• objective feelings (intellectual, aesthetic, moral);
• generalized worldview feelings.

In addition, S. L. Rubinshtein additionally singled out affects, passions and moods.

According to the classification P. A. Rudika There are three emotions: mood, feeling and affect. They are characterized on four scales: intensity, duration, awareness, diffuseness.

P. M. Jacobson singled out such expressions of feelings: mood, emotions, affects, sensual tone and stress.

A fairly common basis for classifying and describing the quality of emotions is (as mentioned earlier) their modality, which usually boils down to three basic qualities: pleasure(or joy) fear(phobias) and fury(or anger, aggressiveness).

However, in real life there is a merging, crossing of such modalities, and therefore often there is a simultaneous existence and interaction of experiences that are formally opposite in sign, for example, love and hate or joy and sadness. This manifests the ambivalence (polymodality) of real emotions as a result of a complex, multidimensional, changeable and, as a rule, ambiguous attitude of a person to an object or subject that causes experience.

example

With all the variety of experiences, in almost everyone there is a peculiar expression of one of the three classical emotions or their complex combination. Suppose the feeling of nostalgia is both bright and sad, anxious and calm, sharp and tender, etc. An author's, individual experience of the past, which cannot be expressed in words, arises, and such an emotion cannot be purely trace, i.e. repetition, reproduction of what has been experienced before. A person clearly remembers, for example, as a fact that he was happy or unhappy sometime and somewhere, he is aware of past events and objects of his past emotions, but he is unlikely to be able to deeply feel, re-experience his departed state.

In Russian there is no synonym for the capacious word "love", but there is an abundance of adjectives to denote shades of this multifaceted feeling: unrequited, cordial, insidious, tender, unhappy, compassionate, etc. In such definitions, the most diverse combinations of the qualities of this polymodal feeling seek their expression.

Emotions are also characterized by strength, duration and awareness.

• The range of differences in strength internal experience and expressiveness of external manifestations is very large for emotions of any modality. Perhaps, for example, Yesenin's "violence of eyes and a flood of feelings", or perhaps a sluggish, unexpressed mood. Joy can manifest as a mild, mild emotion, such as when a person experiences a calm sense of satisfaction. Delight is an emotion of greater strength, brightness and expressiveness. Anger ranges from petty irritability and restrained indignation to fierce hatred and undisguised aggression and rage; fear - from mild anxiety and vague, poorly objectified anxiety to pronounced phobias, panic and an acute experience of horror.
• By duration The existence of emotions is divided into short-term, unexpected and, as a rule, acute (lasting a few seconds or minutes) and relatively long, or chronic (lasting many hours, days, and even years).
• Degree awareness emotions can also be different and changeable. Sometimes it is difficult for a person to understand what emotion he is experiencing and why it arises. It happens that special emotional questions and problems are actualized in our minds, which are not always easily or unambiguously solved by a person.

Basic forms or types of emotions. The qualities that characterize each specific emotion can be combined in various ways, which creates an innumerable variety of forms of their possible existence and expression. For convenience and brevity of presentation of this huge (and debatable) material, we use the general logic A. N. Leontieva, who subdivided all emotions into three major subclasses(according to the implemented functions and in the direction of development from simple and lower to higher and complex): affects, emotions proper, feelings.

1. affects how a subclass of emotional phenomena relate to the most ancient (phylogenetically) experiences that are not subject to conscious control and are extremely strong in the sense of their inadequate, often destructive, impact on the general mental condition and human behavior.

Affect- this is a sharp, explosive, stormy experience that occurs at the end of any emotional event and does not depend on the person's consciousness.

The evolutionist K. Buhler assumed that in the course of the development of the behavior and psyche of animals, the psychological phenomenon of pleasure moved from the end, from the completion of the action (at the level of innate instincts) to the process of action itself (the stage of skills or individually variable behavior) and further to the emotional anticipation of activity and its result (the stage of intellectual behavior of animals) (see Chap. 3).

Note that the term "affect" to this day has a broader meaning, when it is used as a synonym for any emotions, experiences in general, for example, in designating the affective sphere of a personality, in the name of affective speech, etc.

Affects arise in acute conflict situations, often associated with the dissatisfaction of a person's vital needs, although in today's tense society, affect can also have a purely sociogenic origin if the events affect something deeply significant for the individual, something socially important, urgently needed or unacceptable or even forbidden.

Unlike emotions and feelings, affect occurs only after the completion of a certain event. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish, for example, the uncontrollable affect of fear (say, after a soldier leaves the battle) from the anticipatory emotion or feeling of fear of a possible affect (the upcoming battle). Affect is not amenable to direct control of consciousness. It can be "deceived", distracted from affect, soften affective expressions, but it cannot be completely subordinated to one's own consciousness or will. The presence of an accused person in a state of passion during the commission of a crime is a mitigating circumstance for judicial practice. Usually affects have a destructive, disorganizing effect on the behavior, consciousness and activity of a person, although the individual sometimes can neither realize this nor remember it afterwards. However, the positive influence of affect is also possible, leading to over-mobilization of the psyche and human behavior.

In experimental psychology, some laws of affect dynamics:

• fixation of an affective state on the situation that caused it, trace formation, which creates a certain affective barrier (complex) for the individual, leaves a strong emotional trace in the psyche, indirectly (not always consciously) warning a person from an affective situation for him. This is the psychological function of affect (regulating, protective, signaling and evaluative at the same time);
• the obsession of the affective trace, the tendency to restore it, emerge;
• inhibition as a process opposite to restoration, preventing a breakthrough, an immediate exit of affect;
• repression as a possibility of suppression, expulsion of affect from the memory and psyche by the type of its self-defense;
• "sewerage" of affect as the possibility of its discharge, exit, elimination;
• accumulation, i.e. accumulation, summation of affects, to which a person does not get used, and therefore a psychological outlet adequate to the affect is necessary as a discharge, fraught with negative consequences for the psyche and personality.

example

In a vast pilot study A. R. Luria (1931) found that against the background of an affective experience or its traces (from the past), objective, unremovable, unconscious motor and vegetative reactions of the body are observed, by the presence of which one can judge with high certainty the presence of personal meaningful emotions even if the person hides them. The so-called lie detector (or polygraph) is built on this principle, which is widely used in the United States to diagnose the truthfulness or "reliability" of a person (judicial and managerial practice).

In recent years, this psychophysiological technique has become widespread in domestic psychodiagnostics.

2. Subclass itself emotions is the most extensive, widespread and diverse in the structure of the integral emotional sphere of the personality, as it includes an innumerable list of types, forms and shades of human experiences.

Sensual tone characterized by the fact that it has an unobjectified character and manifests itself in the fact that many mental images (sensations, perceptions, memories, imaginations, dreams, etc.) have not always a definite, but subjectively emphasized emotional coloring. This is a blurry, wide, background emotional state that has not taken shape in a clear and specific objective experience. We do not just feel any sound, smell or taste, but accept it, evaluate it as subjectively pleasant or unpleasant. Feeling hot or cold, we simultaneously experience some kind of pleasure or displeasure, and so on. The emotional background does not have a specific subject carrier, it surrounds, as it were, a distinguished "figure" (in the terminology of Gestalt psychology), which in this case is an emotion as an experience related to a more or less formed, discrete object, phenomenon or event.

Emotions are an extensive type (subclass) of human experiences that are directly related to everyday objects, situations, phenomena and circumstances of the life and being of a person. A characteristic feature of our emotions is their indispensable sociality, i.e. the presence of not only (and not so much) physiological, but also social, cultural, traditional and personal conditioning.

example

People of different nationalities, religions, cultures experience death equally hard loved one, but the objective manifestations, expressions, emotional nuances of such grief are quite different. Someone hires mourners for funerals, someone organizes orchestras, fireworks and banquets, someone sings a funeral service in a church, someone is proud of the departure of the deceased to another endless and bright world, etc. They also celebrate weddings, the birth of children, various holidays and anniversaries in different ways. It should be emphasized that the means of expressing emotions will certainly modify (strengthen or weaken) the experience itself.

The subclass of emotions also has the following peculiarities:

• experience is shifted to the course of the active process itself (phenomena, events) and to anticipation, foresight of its beginning (ideotor processes);
• emotions are capable of generalization, i.e. to the formation of a special emotional experience of the individual as one of its most important psychological features;
• emotions are signified, i.e. are expressed through specific objective signs, symbols, words, gestures, facial expressions and pantomimes, as a result of which there is an objective, readable language human emotions;
• experience can be transferred to other people and accepted by them, emotions are communicable: co-emotions, empathies are possible, on which all art is built and a lot in interpersonal communication and interaction of people;
• emotions are educable, i.e. are the result of the acceptance and assimilation of social experience, the result of ontogeny and continuous socialization of the individual;
• emotions are objective, but to some extent situational, i.e. related to certain, specific and current circumstances, and therefore changeable, mobile in accordance with changing situations (external and internal).

example

One and the same music, one's own clothes, appearance, room, picture or poem can evoke very different experiences in an individual depending on the situation of hearing or seeing, on the characteristics of the environment, on one's own physical or internal state. Let us suppose that a person is late for something, and therefore is excited, anxious, preoccupied, and everything around him seems to him to be obstacles to the necessary rapid movement. But here he got to the right place, not late. Tension and anxiety were gone, the person relaxed, and the world around him changed, becoming friendly and calm again.

The term "mood" is widely used in everyday colloquial practice and gives a certain qualitative assessment of the general emotional state of a person. The mood is not related to a separate object or object, but to a certain holistic, relatively long-term and well-established situation for a person. The mood is bad and good, heavy, normal, spoiled, upbeat, etc. The mood is relatively stable, but at the same time, it is necessarily changeable for each person, as it depends on many external and internal factors that form the situation. It is also possible that certain qualities of mood predominate in the personality, a characteristic individual flow or "system" of moods is possible. Then the mood goes into the category of chronic emotions and important personality traits.

Mood- this is a generalized situational emotional state of a person that does not have a specific and definite subject.

The generalized nature of the mood is also manifested in the breadth of its influences on human behavior, on the entire current worldview. The mood carries out emotional preparation and accompaniment of activity, creates a mood, a person’s emotional attitude to the perception of everything that happens.

example

If you are in a good mood, everything around you and life itself is perceived lightly and joyfully, the work ahead seems easy and pleasant. With a drooping, gloomy mood, everything seems to a person gloomy, unnecessary and sad, and the same work is perceived as heavy, forced and uninteresting. For example, such a daily mood dynamics is also possible: "A decent person becomes melancholic in the evening" (E. M. Remarque). "And in it nothing - neither close nor far - can satisfy the gnawing sadness" (Goethe).

A person's mood is made up of many diverse and often polar emotions. Not only other experiences take part in it, but the whole human psyche: needs and motives, temperament and character, intellect, activity, consciousness and self-consciousness. In this regard, the strength of expression and the duration of the mood can be very different both in different people and in the same person. Mood refers to a specific time, but carries projections of the past, present, and expected future. Therefore, it can be difficult for a person to understand the reasons for his own mood, which can be events or deeds large and small, yesterday or today, pleasant and unpleasant, conscious and unconscious. The main thing is that such events are in some way very significant for the subject, and therefore cause an underlined personal attitude and its experience.

In especially difficult, tense conditions, in conflict or extreme situations, emotions can take the form of stress.

Stress- this is a general non-specific (emotional and physiological) reaction of the body to an intense external emotional impact.

The understanding of stress as an inevitable adaptation syndrome in human life and its main stages - adaptation diseases - was first described by the Canadian physician and biologist Hans Selye (1907–1982). With the help of stress, the body mobilizes itself as much as possible to adapt to a situation that cannot be dealt with by conventional (specific) means. To live means to be in constant danger. Dangerous situations are becoming more and more typical, everyday for modern society: the way of life in a giant metropolis, intense social competition, life's troubles, natural and man-made disasters, terrorist attacks, military operations, social restructuring, revolutions, reforms and economic crises - all these phenomena are for our psyche as powerful and irremovable, sometimes even chronic, stressors. Modern man lives in conditions of protracted, extended in time "extremism", adequate adaptation (adaptation) to which is associated with significant psychological effort and overload.

Stages of development of stress

At the first stage of adaptation (optimal activation of the sympathetic nervous system), the changes that occur in the body have a generally positive, tonic effect on the psyche and behavior. This is manifested in the intensification of the work of internal organs, in an increase in the level of working capacity. A person is internally ready to overcome obstacles, he is characterized by faith in success. At the second stage (the stage of struggle), all body systems are mobilized and function at a limiting level that exceeds the usual capabilities. But such an overactivated struggle cannot last indefinitely, and if the effect of stress factors continues, the third stage sets in - exhaustion or distress, which leads to imbalance and disruption of all mental activity, to destructive personality changes, to frequent nervous and somatic diseases.

The state of stress can be associated not only with real, but also with supposed, mental circumstances. For example, a severe negative experience arises when there is a pronounced fear of losing a job, in anxious anticipation of a forced break in marital relations, on the eve of a serious exam, when imagining the possible tragic consequences of flying on an airliner, predicted global warming, the death of the planet, nuclear war, alien invasion, etc. .

Emotions that arise in connection with the breakdown of a person’s plans, in connection with losses, deprivations, conflicts, with insurmountable difficulties, in the absence of opportunities or in the presence of a threat to the realization of personal plans, are also commonly called frustrations. Formally, they can be attributed to ideotor emotional phenomena that occur before the accomplishment, on the eve of real events, but in the real life of emotions, a clear separation of the past, present and future is extremely difficult.

Behavior in a stressful situation differs from affective behavior, since a person can control his emotions, analyze the situation, and make adequate decisions. However, if the problem is not resolved for too long, stress can seriously affect not only behavior, but also physical and mental health personality.

No one manages to live and work without experiencing stress. Severe life losses, failures, conflicts, increased stress when performing responsible work, etc. come to everyone from time to time. If a person copes with stress more easily and successfully than others, he is considered stress-resistant. This psychological quality is necessary for many professions, including teachers, leaders of all levels, teachers, doctors, military personnel, rescuers, athletes and many other specialties related to working with people, with complex equipment, with extreme incidents.

human behavior in stressful situation can change in two directions (L.A. Kitaev-Smyk): passive-emotional (according to mud “to wait”, “endure”) and active-emotional (the desire to overcome the situation, to remove the stressor). It is believed that the second way is psychologically preferable - overcoming the negative effects of stress. Although in this case it is necessary to provide some combination of external (objective) and internal (subjective) optimal for each individual, the presence of harmony, dynamic balance of its aspirations, ideals, values ​​and real opportunities(physical and psychological) their achievement.

The state of stress can also be caused by the excessive development of positive personal experiences (marriage, childbirth, unexpected major success, etc.), which is another confirmation of the previously described Yerkes-Dodson law, according to which any emotion can become destructively super-strong .

An emotional state similar to stress (in its third destructive stage) is "emotional burnout". It occurs in a situation of prolonged mental or physical stress and the constant presence of strong emotions(not necessarily negative). A person gets bored with everything around (at work, in public and at home), he quickly gets tired at his usual work, which has become uninteresting and forced for him. The general emotional background is simplified, dulled, self-attitude, self-esteem and self-regulation are distorted, the level of empathy decreases, indifference and a sense of loneliness increase, manifestations of selfishness, aggressiveness, emptiness, depression, and sometimes cynicism of a person. Not only the emotional sphere is deformed, but also the whole psychology, the behavior of the individual. Emotional burnout is especially characteristic of people in creative and stressful professions, as well as everyone who constantly works with people. With a significant development of this emotional phenomenon, a person can become professionally unsuitable.

Passion- this is a strong, persistent, long-term experience that captures the entire personality and subordinates its behavior exclusively to the achievement of the desired goal.

The object of passion can be another person or a social group (status in it), material objects or actions (money, things, fishing, savings, hunting, football, computer, collecting, etc.), all kinds of ideal or ethical, moral or moral ideas and values ​​(revolution, victory, freedom, career, religion, independence, power, etc.).

The quality of the object (i.e., direction) of passion, the form of its manifestation, the degree to which a person is subject to it, the means used to satisfy it, depend on the integral mental image of the individual. Motivation and meaning formation, consciousness, will, character, intellect, morality are involved in the passion and passionate behavior of a person. Passion makes some people selfless, generous, inspired, capable of achieving great and humane goals, others destroys and blindly subjugates, prompts them to asocial, immoral, and sometimes even criminal actions.

example

Undoubtedly passionate, although quite different feelings of love and hatred, all world fiction is filled: "Othello", "Romeo and Juliet", "Ruslan n Lyudmila", "Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris"," Anna Karenina ", etc. But in real life, the presence and functioning of human passions does not require special proof. Passionate hobbies and desires are the cause of many discoveries, outstanding achievements in science, art, and in any creative activity. Passionate people are obsessed with their goal ideas and do for their implementation what socially and emotionally moderate, calmly and pragmatically reasonable personalities will not do. Passion gives rise not to simple, generally accepted and routine actions, but to non-standard actions, decisions and life moves. We can assume that "the world is ruled by passions "The negative influence of passions on behavior and the general state of the individual is also widely known. Orthodoxy is a staunch opponent of (carnal) passions and a supporter of humble calmness. "It is not money that is to blame, but addiction to them," wrote the venerable Elder Joseph of Optina (1837–1911) In reality, everything depends on the subject of a person’s passionate (powerful, all-encompassing) experience and on his psychological, especially moral, features. Developed personality can to a certain extent manage their passions (as opposed to affects), subject them to conscious analysis, measure their actions and deeds (especially in the field of interpersonal relations) with existing social norms and rules.

3. The third subclass of emotions is feelings, which are the highest form of human experiences, when they are combined, generalized, psychologically merge, intersect with the orientation of the personality, with its ideals and values, with thinking and consciousness, with the entire psyche.

Feeling- this is the highest type of experience, the result of psychological generalization, fixation (crystallization) of situational emotions on a certain subject.

One and the same object (let's say it's a child), depending on specific circumstances, can evoke a variety of situational emotions in a person: joy, surprise, sadness, anger, bewilderment, admiration, etc. Over time, in the course of various interactions and communications between people, these situational experiences are generalized, transient, random "evaporates" from them and a complex, multidimensional feeling is formed. It is the result of settling, crystallization of changeable experiences ("emotional solution") on a specific subject, and therefore is more stable and stable than emotions. The degree and quality of the generalization of experiences embodied in a feeling can vary considerably. In reality, the connections between feelings and emotions are not linear, but ring-shaped. The formed feeling changes situational emotions, but also changes itself from the generalization of new and new private experiences. Feelings are born, change, develop or disappear, perish.

According to experimental psychology, a person is able to confidently distinguish such experiences (emotional zones): joy, fear, tenderness, surprise, indifference, anger, sadness, contempt, respect, shame, resentment. In fact, the list of human feelings and their shades is truly inexhaustibly diverse, dynamic, rich and is the main subject of all art forms.

The classification of the types of feelings can be made on different (and dissimilar) grounds, therefore, we will give only the most famous, generalized and widespread.

Depending on the origin, on the connection with the needs, feelings are usually divided into higher and lower.

Higher feelings they name those that are associated with the so-called higher, i.e. socially conditioned (sociogenic) needs. Note that such a division of human needs is not entirely justified and correct, since all human needs are socialized to one degree or another (see Chapter 5). This fully applies to feelings, although the level of socialization of human experiences can (and should) vary significantly among different people (and cultures). A personality is (by definition) a biosocial being (see Chapter 4), and therefore, in the entire human psyche, an organic unity exists and functions, an integral and indissoluble fusion of biological and social (see Chapter 1), bodily and spiritual. Numerous (sometimes subtly hidden) attempts to belittle, materialize human feelings, equating them with purely biological or physiological experiences of animals, have always existed not only in psychology. But such models and theoretical constructions are always erroneous and even flawed methodologically, since they do not at all prove the equality of the feelings of man and animals. They only illustrate the fact that feelings (and the entire human psyche) can be "dehumanized", deprived of a scientifically elusive soul and spirituality, if the subject is placed in abnormal, anti-human conditions of existence. Yes, and this "dehumanization" is not always possible and not for every person.

intellectual feelings have as their object knowledge about the world and arise in the process of human cognition, especially in the course of its highest form - thinking and creativity. In these feelings, the subject of thought (question, problem, unknown) and subjective experience merge, which is therefore capable of a special, emotional regulation of human thinking, consciousness and comprehension.

example

Plato believed that all knowledge begins with surprise, curiosity and inquisitiveness. Archimedes, according to legend, cried out: "Eureka!" at the discovery of his law, and the great Newton was probably angry with an apple that fell on his head, which contributed to the discovery of the law of universal gravitation.

Feelings and intellect are not opposed in our psyche, but exist and function only in a multidimensional unity. The joy of knowledge is known to every person and is especially expressive in childhood when the world of emotions overwhelms, overwhelms the child's psyche. Never-ending children's "why?" and the joyful discoveries of the world are unceasing and emotionally contagious. And indeed, the human psyche itself begins in ontogeny with direct emotional communication, with the formation of an emotional connection and contacts of the child with the cognizable world (see Chapter 28).

Praxic feelings arise in connection with the activity of a person, with the course and effectiveness of his practical action and activity.

example

The self-exclamation of the great classic is well known: "Ah yes Pushkin! Aw yes son of a bitch!"

Children's play, in which the basic psychological characteristics (new formations) of a preschooler are formed, is motivated not by the result, but by the process itself (see Chapter 30). In the psychology of labor, it is recommended, when selecting people for work, to give preference to the applicant who is interested in the very content of the work, its subject and process. Depending on the motivation, content and results of the work done, the feeling of fatigue from it can be ordinary, even pleasant, or, on the contrary, heavy and hopeless.

aesthetic feelings are aimed at awareness, acceptance by the personality of the many-sided beauty of the world, the person himself, the entire universe.

example

Yesenin's sky is beautiful when "the blue sucks the eyes"; the sculptures of Rodin, the music of Verdi or Rachmaninoff, other beauties in abstract mathematical or chemical formulas, in theoretical scientific constructions, in ordinary pine cone, in the paintings of great artists, etc. A person who does not feel beauty, does not experience the presence of beauty, or has inadequate, false ideas about it, significantly impoverishes his psyche, life and being.

Moral(or moral) feelings are the subject of interpersonal relations of people, when moral (situational) and moral (universal) norms, values, ideals, categories and principles are not only accepted by the mind and externally observed, but deeply experienced personally.

example

The sense of honor that led A. S. Pushkin to a tragic duel, in modern society seems inappropriate, relic, and even harmful. Moral categories of conscience, shame, etc. become more and more foreign to the multitude people XXI century, and therefore do not enter into their consciousness, life and emotional experience. The presence of conscience in a person means the presence of it as a personal experience, which, under any life circumstances, will not allow a person to act otherwise, "not according to conscience." "Yes, pitiful is the one in whom the conscience is not clear" (A. S. Pushkin). A person either has a conscience or they don't. There is no half conscience. For an honest person, deceit, hypocrisy, theft, betrayal, bribery, bribery and much more, "sinful" are psychologically unbearable. In the absence of a person's feelings of honor and conscience, everything becomes possible and permissible for him, all boundaries between good and evil are erased, when, for example, "the end justifies the means." The community of such people is doomed to moral degradation and degeneration.

Feeling of patriotism, i.e. a conscious experience by a person of his individual belonging to the country as the only Motherland or Fatherland includes all the distinguished components: intellectual, aesthetic, praxic, moral, etc. This feeling should be balanced in a person with the presence of tolerance as a calm, restrained tolerance for other states and nations, to other views and ideologies. The extreme, grotesque poles of this bundle - patriotism (as nationalism) and tolerance (as cosmopolitanism) - are equally unacceptable for a cultured individual and a civilized society. Here, as in the whole universe, dynamic stability (stability), optimal interaction of all functioning qualities and factors is necessary. Ovid also wrote: "You will pass through the middle unharmed."

A special position in the emotional sphere of personality is occupied by the feeling of love. The complexity and diversity of this feeling is truly amazing. A child, for example, "loves mom, dad and ice cream." The most important quality Pedagogy teachers often calls love for children. Christ calls from each icon: "Yes, love one another." Love for the Motherland has led and is leading warriors to exploits and heroic death. Possible love for nature, profession, adventure, etc. The role of love is great in interpersonal relationships, in the institution of the family, in the eternal emotional search by each person for his other half. Here, for example, are the reflections of S. A. Yesenin: "Do not call this ardor fate. A quick-tempered connection is frivolous." It is clear that the common and popular word "love" denotes very vivid, personally significant, deep and subtle, but very different experiences that have long deserved systematic psychological research.

S. L. Rubinshtein singled out worldview feelings, which can also be considered an integral part of moral ones, since broad worldview categories (human, world, good, evil, ideal, etc.) are included in the content of human morality, in the composition of one ideology or another.

example

The feeling of love for the Motherland, for example, refers not just to the geographical place of birth or growing up of a person, but to the experience of all complex relationships with fellow countrymen, with the moral, cultural and historical customs and traditions of both the country as a whole and numerous, closer and narrower social entities: relatives and friends, yard, neighbors, school, street, place of work, district, village or city, etc. Here all possible types and shades of feelings and experiences intersect in a single emotional formation (in different ways for every person): from the emotional background to the worldview.

In a living human psyche, all feelings and emotions exist, of course, not separately, but in the desired unity, in personal integrity. Intellectual, aesthetic and other experiences in reality are inseparable from one another, and their artificial division in scientific schemes is intended only to describe as fully as possible the motley, lively, dynamic and multi-level world of human emotions.

Thus, the development and complication of emotions and the emotional sphere of the personality is carried out in two main directions. On the one hand, there is an increasingly subtle objectification, differentiation of human experiences: from a diffuse emotional tone to feelings, generalized, crystallized on their subject. The quantity increases and changes, the quality of these subjects becomes more complicated, the scope of which includes social phenomena, abstract concepts, ethical categories, principles, values. On the other hand, there is an ever closer interaction (mediation, expansion of interfunctional connections) of experiences with all other psychological phenomena, with thinking, consciousness, self-awareness and personality as a whole.

1.2 Classification of emotions

Each emotion is unique in its sources, experiences, external manifestations and methods of regulation. Man is the most emotional living being, he has a highly differentiated means of external expression of emotions and a wide variety of internal experiences. There are many classifications of emotions. In addition to the fact that they are divided into positive and negative, using the criterion of mobilization of the body's resources, sthenic and asthenic emotions (from the Greek "stenos"). Sthenic emotions increase activity, causing a surge of energy and uplift, while asthenic emotions act in the opposite way. According to the needs, the lower emotions associated with the satisfaction of organic needs, the so-called general sensations (hunger, thirst, etc.) are distinguished from the higher emotions (feelings), socially conditioned, associated with social relations. According to the strength and duration of manifestations, several types of emotions are distinguished: affects, passions, emotions proper, moods, feelings and stress.

K. Izard singled out the main, “fundamental emotions”. Interest (as an emotion) is a positive state that promotes the development of skills and abilities, the acquisition of knowledge, and motivates learning.

Joy is a positive emotional state associated with the ability to fully satisfy an urgent need, the probability of which up to this point was not great.

Surprise is an emotional response to unexpected circumstances. Surprise inhibits all previous emotions, directing attention to the object that caused it, and can turn into interest.

Suffering is a negative emotional state associated with the information received about the impossibility of satisfying the most important vital needs, which until that time seemed more or less likely. Most often occurs in the form of emotional stress.

Anger is a negative emotional state that proceeds in the form of an affect, caused by an obstacle to satisfying an extremely important need for the subject.

Disgust is a negative emotional state caused by objects, contact with which comes into sharp conflict with the ideological, moral or aesthetic principles and attitudes of the subject.

Contempt is a negative emotional state that occurs in interpersonal relationships and is generated by the inconsistency of life positions, attitudes and behavior with the positions of the object of feelings.

Fear is a negative emotion that appears when the subject receives information about a possible threat to his life well-being, about a real or imagined danger.

Shame is a negative emotional state, expressed in the awareness of the inconsistency of one's own thoughts, actions and appearance not only with the expectations of others, but also with one's own ideas about appropriate behavior and appearance.

From the combination of fundamental emotions arise such complex emotional states as, for example, anxiety, which can combine fear, anger, guilt and interest. Each of these emotions underlies a whole range of states that differ in degree of expression (for example, joy, satisfaction, delight, exultation, ecstasy, and so on). Emotional experiences are ambiguous. The same object can cause inconsistent, conflicting emotional relationships. This phenomenon is called ambivalence (duality) of feelings. Usually, ambivalence is caused by the fact that individual features of a complex object affect the needs and values ​​​​of a person in different ways (for example, you can respect someone for their ability to work and at the same time condemn them for their temper). Ambivalence can also be generated by a contradiction between stable feelings towards an object and situational emotions developing from them (for example, love and hate are combined in jealousy).

Affect is the most powerful emotional reaction that completely captures the human psyche. This emotion usually occurs in extreme conditions when a person cannot cope with the situation. Distinctive features: situational, generalized, short duration and high intensity. There is a mobilization of the body, movements are impulsive. Affect is practically uncontrollable and is not subject to volitional control. Distinctive feature affect - weakening of conscious control, narrowness of consciousness. The affect is accompanied by a strong and erratic motor activity, there is a kind of discharge in action. In an affect, a person, as it were, loses his head, his actions are not reasonable, they are performed without taking into account the situation. Extremely strong excitation, having crossed the limit of the efficiency of nerve cells, is replaced by unconditional inhibition, and an emotional shock occurs. As a result, the affect ends with a breakdown, fatigue, and even stupor. Impaired consciousness can lead to an inability to later recall individual episodes and even complete amnesia for events. Passion is a strong, persistent, long-lasting feeling that captures a person and owns him. In strength it approaches affect, and in duration it is closer to feelings. A person can become an object of passion. S.L. Rubinstein wrote that “passion is always expressed in concentration, concentration of thoughts and forces, their focus on a single goal ... Passion means impulse, passion, orientation of all aspirations and forces of the individual in a single direction, focusing them on a single goal.” Actually, emotions are situational in nature, express an evaluative attitude to emerging or possible situations, and may be weakly manifested in external behavior, especially if a person skillfully hides his emotions. Feelings are the most stable emotional states. They are objective in nature: it is always a feeling for something or for someone. They are sometimes referred to as "higher" emotions because they arise from the satisfaction of higher order needs. In the individual development of a person, feelings play an important socializing role. On the basis of positive emotional experiences such as feelings, the needs and interests of a person appear and are fixed. Feelings, one might say, are a product of the cultural and historical development of man. They are associated with certain objects, activities and people surrounding a person. In relation to the surrounding world, a person seeks to act in such a way as to reinforce and strengthen his positive feelings. They are always associated with the work of consciousness, they can be arbitrarily regulated. Feelings are the attitudes of a person experienced in various forms to objects and phenomena of reality. Human feelings are a positive value. Human life is unbearable without experiences, many feelings are attractive in themselves, and if a person is deprived of the opportunity to experience feelings, then the so-called “emotional hunger” sets in, which he seeks to satisfy by listening to his favorite music, reading an action-packed book, and so on. Moreover, emotional saturation requires not only positive feelings, but also feelings associated with suffering. Mood is a state that colors our feelings, the general emotional state for a significant amount of time. Unlike emotions and feelings, mood is not objective, but personal; it is not situational, but extended over time. Mood is an emotional response not to the immediate consequences of certain events, but to their implications for a person's life in the context of his general life plans, interests and expectations. Noting the peculiarities of the mood, S.L. Rubinshtein pointed out, firstly, that it is not objective, but personal, and, secondly, this is not a special experience dedicated to some particular event, but a diffuse, general state.

The mood significantly depends on the general state of health, on the work of the endocrine glands, and especially on the tone of the nervous system. The reasons for this or that mood are not always clear to the person experiencing them, and even more so to the people around him. No wonder they talk about unaccountable sadness, causeless joy, and in this sense, mood is an unconscious assessment by a person of how favorable circumstances are for her. This cause can be the surrounding nature, events, activities performed, and of course, people.

Moods can vary in duration. The stability of mood depends on many reasons: the age of a person, the individual characteristics of his character and temperament, willpower, the level of development of the leading motives of behavior. Mood stimulates or inhibits human activity. One and the same work in different moods can seem either easy and pleasant, or hard and depressing. A person works well when he is alert, calm, cheerful, and much worse when he is alarmed, irritated, dissatisfied. A person must control his behavior, and for this you can use images and situations that pleasant to a person. With the dominance of a positive, cheerful mood, a person easily experiences temporary failures and grief. In addition to changes occurring in the nervous, endocrine and other systems of the body, and conscious subjective experiences, emotions are expressed in the expressive behavior of a person. Emotions are manifested in the so-called expressive movements of the face - facial expressions, expressive movements of the whole body - pantomime, and "vocal facial expressions" - the expression of emotions in the intonation and timbre of the voice. To date, it is customary to distinguish several basic functions of emotions: regulatory, reflective, signaling, stimulating, reinforcing, switching, adaptive and communicative. Emotions reflect the significance and evaluation of different situations by a person, so the same stimuli can cause the most dissimilar reactions in different people. It is in emotional manifestations that the depth of a person's inner life is expressed. Personality is largely formed under the influence of lived experiences. Emotional reactions, in turn, are due to individual characteristics emotional sphere of a person. One of the most important is the communicative function of emotions, since it is difficult to imagine the interaction between people without emotional manifestations. By expressing his emotions, a person shows his attitude to reality and, above all, to other people. Mimic and pantomimic expressive movements allow a person to convey their experiences to other people, to inform them about their attitude towards something or someone. Facial expressions, gestures, postures, expressive sighs, changes in intonation - are the "language" of human feelings, a means of communicating not so much thoughts as emotions. Purchasing with early childhood a certain experience of communicating with people, each person can, with varying degrees of certainty, determine the emotional states of others by their expressive movements and, above all, by facial expressions. During a person's life, a certain system of standards is formed, with the help of which he evaluates other people. Recent studies in the field of emotion recognition have shown that a number of factors affect a person's ability to understand others: gender, age, personality, professional characteristics, as well as a person's belonging to a particular culture. A number of professions require a person to be able to manage his emotions and adequately determine the expressive movements of the people around him. Understanding the reactions of other people and the correct response to them in a collaborative environment is an integral part of success in many professions. The inability to agree, understand another person, enter into his position can lead to complete professional incompetence. This quality is especially important for people in whose professions communication occupies an important place. The ability to understand the numerous nuances of emotional manifestations and reproduce them is necessary for people who have devoted themselves to art. Understanding and ability to reproduce is the most important stage in teaching actors the art of intonation, facial expressions, and gestures. Referring to the psychological studies of various authors, and even to our own observations, we can say that most of the information in the process of communication, a person receives through non-verbal means of communication. With the help of a verbal or verbal component, a person transmits a small percentage of information, the main load in the transfer of meaning lies with the so-called "extra-linguistic" means of communication.