Methodological materials “Tests in the educational process. High, since the main purpose of testing is the differentiation of test subjects according to the level of training

Introduction ................................................ ................................................. ............ 2

1. Pedagogical testing as a method of control .............................................. 4

2. Computer testing in pedagogy .............................................. ......... 7

3. Intelligent testing............................................................... ...................... 12

Conclusion................................................. ................................................. ...... nineteen

List of references .............................................................................. .................. 20

Introduction

In recent years, in Russia, in the field of education, there has been a rapid increase in interest in automating the intermediate and final control of the learning outcomes of students from various educational institutions, from schools to commercial courses. The most popular type of such control is testing based on the dialogue between the computer system and the user. The rapid growth in the speed of computer systems, the reduction in prices for computer equipment, the emergence of high-quality and powerful programming systems have increased the need for systems that allow you to objectively, quickly and reliably assess students' knowledge, offering interesting forms of interaction with them.

But the issue of creating such systems is not unambiguous, and the authors of existing developments sometimes deviate from the pedagogical and psychological side of the issue, trying to maximize the attractiveness of their software products at the expense of multimedia. Sometimes programmers simply ignore the process of interacting directly with knowledge holders (teachers), which affects existing applications. Very often, the teachers themselves do not properly know the methods for assessing the quality of the created tests (we will talk about testing).

It should be noted that the first concepts of computerization of education arose more than 30 years ago under the slogan "technical re-equipment of the teacher, mechanization of his work", "teaching machine", imitating the process of individual work of a teacher with a student. Over time, awareness of their limitations grew.

The fact is that the use of traditional methods of computer training and control (direct testing, scoring system, etc.) is unacceptable: in order to assess the knowledge of the student, the teacher has to process a huge amount of information, and the process of interaction between the evaluator and the assessed cannot be strict formalization, therefore, the three main algorithmic structures (sequential, branching, cycle) in the implementation of machine systems will not be able to fully describe this subject area. Those. the implementation of automated control of knowledge, skills of trainees, first of all, includes solving the problem of determining the totality of the required qualities of knowledge, without which the criteria for assessing knowledge and methods for determining the level of their assimilation cannot be identified.

The purpose of the abstract: to show some of the existing methods and models of pedagogical testing, to describe and evaluate the quality of existing testing and control systems, to put forward their own ideas.

1. Pedagogical testing as a method of control.

The main goal of monitoring knowledge and skills is to detect achievements, successes of students, to indicate ways to improve, deepen knowledge, skills, so that conditions are created for the subsequent inclusion of students in active creative activity. This goal is primarily related to determining the quality of learning by students of educational material - the level of mastering the knowledge, skills and abilities provided for by the program. Secondly, the specification of the main goal of control is associated with teaching the methods of mutual control and self-control, the formation of the need for self-control and mutual control.

Thirdly, this goal involves the education in students of such personality traits as responsibility for the work performed, the manifestation of initiative.

If the listed goals of controlling students' knowledge and skills are realized, then we can say that testing performs the following functions: controlling, teaching (educational), diagnostic, prognostic, developing, orienting, educating. Let's consider these functions in more detail.

The controlling function consists in identifying the state of knowledge and skills of students, their level of mental development, in studying the degree of mastering the methods of cognitive activity, the skills of rational educational work.

With the help of testing, the initial level for further mastering knowledge, skills and abilities is determined, the depth and volume of their assimilation is studied. The planned is compared with the actual results, the effectiveness of the methods, forms and means of teaching used by the teacher is established.

The educational function of testing is to improve knowledge and skills, their systematization. In the process of checking, students repeat and consolidate the studied material. They not only reproduce previously learned, but also apply knowledge and skills in a new situation. Verification helps to highlight the main, the main thing in the material being studied, to make the knowledge and skills being tested more clear and accurate. Testing also contributes to the generalization and systematization of knowledge.

The essence of the diagnostic function of testing is to obtain information about errors, shortcomings and gaps in the knowledge and skills of students and the causes of their difficulties in mastering educational material, the number and nature of errors. The results of diagnostic checks help to choose the most intensive teaching methodology, as well as clarify the direction for further improvement of the content of teaching methods and tools.

The predictive function of testing serves to obtain advanced information about the educational process. As a result of the check, grounds are obtained for predicting the course of a certain segment of the educational process: whether specific knowledge, skills and abilities are sufficiently formed to assimilate the next portion of the educational material (section, topic).

The results of the forecast are used to create a model for the further behavior of a student who today makes mistakes of this type or has certain gaps in the system of cognitive activity techniques.

The forecast helps to get the right conclusions for further planning and implementation of the educational process.

The developing function of testing is to stimulate the cognitive activity of students, in the development of their creative abilities. Testing has exceptional opportunities in the development of students. In the process of testing, speech, memory, attention, imagination, will and thinking of schoolchildren develop. Testing has a great influence on the development and manifestation of such personality traits as abilities, inclinations, interests, needs.

The essence of the orienting function of testing is to obtain information about the degree of achievement of the learning goal by an individual student and the group as a whole - how much is learned and how deeply studied educational material. Testing orients students in their difficulties and achievements.

Revealing the gaps, mistakes and shortcomings of students, testing indicates to them the directions for the application of forces to improve knowledge and skills, helps the student to know himself better, evaluate his knowledge and capabilities.

The educational function of testing is to educate students in a responsible attitude to learning, discipline, accuracy, honesty. Checking encourages you to more seriously and regularly control yourself when performing tasks. It is a condition for cultivating a strong will, perseverance, and the habit of regular work.

Highlighting the function of pedagogical testing as a form of control emphasizes its role and importance in the learning process. In the educational process, the functions themselves are manifested in varying degrees and various combinations. The implementation of the selected functions in practice makes control more efficient, and the learning process itself becomes more efficient.

So, pedagogical testing as a form of knowledge control is an integral part of the educational process.

Computer testing in pedagogy

The idea of ​​computer testing directly stems from the idea of ​​programmed knowledge control. The programmed control of knowledge, in turn, was an inevitable reaction to some problems, primarily higher education in Russia. In fact, approximately the same problems apply to school education, but the latter, due to traditional rigidity, is very poorly receptive to new technologies.

The main problem of any education (not only Russian) is the lack of clear control over the quality of assimilation of the material. Moreover, if in school practice the teacher even more or less has the opportunity to check the level of the student’s current knowledge with a certain frequency, then at the university the teacher gives out the material for a whole semester and only at the end of the semester is convinced of the level of his assimilation. Of course, in the system of higher education, it is understood that students should be sufficiently engaged in independent education, however, this supposed independent acquisition of knowledge remains entirely on the student’s conscience, and the teacher absolutely cannot know which of the students is at least something does it on his own. With the receipt of a large number of students access to the Internet, the situation was further aggravated by the fact that now even the delivery of essays does not imply absolutely no work with information; often students do not even consider it necessary to read in full what they print out from the Web.

The need for systematic monitoring of the assimilation of the material is beyond doubt. First of all, this would save the teacher's time, who, in the absence of feedback, is forced either to repeat the provisions that the students have long mastered, or to state the provisions based on facts poorly understood by the students. Secondly, systematic monitoring of the level of knowledge of students stimulates an increase in the quality of education by increasing the emphasis on difficult-to-learn provisions and increasing the responsibility of students for the results of independent work (in the case, of course, when the teacher is interested in this).

An important point of the systematic programmed control of knowledge is its objectivity, which is due to the shift in emphasis from the punitive function to the informative one. Only in this case, the student will not be afraid of control and invent ways to get a higher mark, and only in this case, the teacher will receive a real picture of the student's knowledge.

The technically programmed control of knowledge is simple - students are given a certain paper medium (the heyday of programmed control gave rise to relay-tube "electronic" monsters, which can still be seen in driver's license exams to this day), on which questions and answer options are recorded, one (or several) of which are correct. The student only needs to place crosses against the correct answers.

This technology has made it possible to make a qualitative leap in the implementation of feedback between the teacher and the student. Programmed control, consisting of 8-10 questions, is carried out in a very short time - from 5 to 10 minutes, and at the same time, the teacher can receive full information about the assimilation of the material covered by the entire study group at the same time. In addition, the technical implementation of the programmed control made it possible to completely avoid cheating, making it possible to offer each student his own version of the programmed card.

The disadvantage of programmed control in its pre-computer form was the high laboriousness of creating programmed cards, which (ideally) were required for each lesson, and the complexity of their subsequent processing. With the advent of computer technology, teachers have the opportunity to drastically reduce the complexity of both the preparation of control and the processing of results.

There are five general test requirements:

Validity

certainty (comprehensibility);

simplicity;

unambiguity;

Reliability.

The validity of a test is adequacy. There are content and functional validity: the first is the compliance of the test with the content of the controlled educational material, the second is the compliance of the test with the assessed level of activity.

The fulfillment of the requirement of certainty (publicity) of the test is necessary not only for each student to understand what he must do, but also to exclude correct answers that differ from the standard.

The test simplicity requirement means that the test must have one task of the same level, i.e. should not be complex and consist of several tasks of different levels. It is necessary to distinguish the concept of "complex test" from the concept of "difficult test". The difficulty of the test is usually characterized by the number of operations P that must be performed in the test: P< 3 – первая группа трудности; P = 3-10 – вторая группа трудности. Не следует также смешивать понятия простоты-комплексности и легкости-трудности с понятием сложности.

Unambiguity is defined as the similarity of the assessment of the quality of the test by different experts. To fulfill this requirement, the test must have a benchmark. To measure the degree of correctness, the coefficient K a \u003d P 1 / P 2 is used, where P 1 is the number of correctly performed essential operations in the test or battery of tests; P 1 is the total number of significant operations in the test or battery of tests. Those operations in the test that are performed at the level of assimilation being checked are considered significant. Operations belonging to a lower level are not among the essential ones. When K a ³ 0.7, it is considered that the activity at this level has been mastered.

The concept of testing reliability is defined as the probability of correct measurement of the value of K a . Quantitative indicator of reliability r н . The reliability requirement is to ensure the stability of the results of multiple testing of the same subject. The reliability of a test or battery of tests increases with the increase in the number of significant operations P .

So, when implementing computer testing systems, it is necessary, in my opinion, to adhere to these five requirements for the created tests. But the problem of computer testing is much more acute. The implementation of the five test requirements described above in the testing systems does not mean that the created complex will meet all the requirements of the teacher and student.

Most software products do not allow the teacher and student, teacher and student to move away from traditional methods in the real educational process: a lecture course, notes, full-time knowledge control, tests, tests, exams. This drawback can be defined as follows: a computer course is copyright by definition, and therefore provides a high quality of education only with appropriate support by the author (who, in most cases, does not have sufficient knowledge in the field of information technology). Although individual components of a computer-based learning, supervising, or teaching-supervising course can be used as independent learning modules by other teachers (as well as when mastering the topic on their own), the maximum effect can most likely be achieved only in cooperation with the author-developer of the course.

If another teacher is included in the educational process based on the author's multimedia course, there is a danger of a conflict of personalities, since not only different methods of methodological organization of the educational process, but also different personal approaches collide in a single educational field.

As for checking the quality of knowledge, the informal nature of the knowledge assessment process requires the use of computer tests that are difficult for the teacher to process, active feedback is needed to help assess the correct assimilation of the material, certainty and effectiveness must be clearly expressed. .

It is the informality of knowledge as such, and the knowledge testing process in particular, that has given rise to many problems in the field of computer testing, such as bias in assessment, difficulty in understanding prepared questions by students, slow operation of computer systems, etc.

Knowledge engineering and methods of the theory of artificial intelligence will help create a knowledge control system that allows you to build knowledge models of the teacher and the test-taker and objectively evaluate the knowledge and skills of the latter.

3. Intelligent testing

Different meanings are put into the concept of "artificial intelligence" - from the recognition of intelligence in computers that solve logical or even any computational problems, to classifying as intelligent only those systems that solve the entire complex of tasks carried out by a person, or an even wider set of them. There are two main lines of work on artificial intelligence (AI). The first is connected with the improvement of the machines themselves, with an increase in the "intelligence" of artificial systems. The second is related to the task of optimizing the joint work of "artificial intelligence" and the actual intellectual capabilities of a person.

The idea of ​​creating "human-type" thinking machines that seem to think, move, hear, speak, and generally behave like living people is rooted in the deep past. Even the ancient Egyptians and Romans experienced reverent horror before the cult statues, which gesticulated and spoke prophecies (of course, not without the help of the priests). In the Middle Ages and even later, there were rumors that some of the wise men had homunculi (small artificial men) - real living, capable of feeling beings. Currently, robots, pattern recognition systems, expert systems, etc. evoke in the uninitiated the same awe and delight in front of the "thinking" machine.

But it is not for nothing that some research in the field of AI was frozen at one time. Attempts to create a machine mind failed, and over and over again the enthusiasm of scientists faded, since the computational tools existing at that time did not allow at least approximately recreating the interaction of brain neurons. The emergence of multiprocessor systems and an increase in the number of microprocessor instructions and its clock frequency makes it possible, in my opinion, to “build” approximate human thinking using parallel processes and neural networks.

Turning to the problem of the role of AI in training and education, we will consider this process as one of the varieties of human-computer interaction, and reveal among the promising opportunities those that are aimed at creating so-called adaptive learning systems that simulate the operational dialogue of a student and a human teacher.

Intellectual testing presupposes the existence of a knowledge model, a model of the testing and evaluation process itself. So it is possible to characterize in general all developments in this area. Let's consider some of them in more detail.

The traditional Russian system of assessing the knowledge of students is based on linguistic assessments, according to which a scholarship is established, progress is recorded, records are made in the record books for the period of study, etc.

At the same time, such a new educational procedure as educational testing on an alternative basis involves assessing the level of knowledge in the range from zero to one hundred, which gives rise to the problem of recognizing the linguistic image of knowledge based on the results of such educational testing.

The image of the level of knowledge is understood as students belonging to a set (group), whose knowledge according to the “standard of the level of knowledge” is classified as linguistic assessments unsatisfactory (D), satisfactory (C), good (B), excellent (A).

Knowledge level image recognition is understood as the procedure for making a decision about whether a particular student belongs to one of the indicated images based on a comparison of his educational achievements during testing with the characteristics of the image.

Each course has key points, especially important topics, without the knowledge of which it is impossible to master more complex material in the process of study or which will be necessary in work in the specialty. At the oral exam, in personal contact with the student, the teacher necessarily evaluates the student's understanding of these topics. With automated testing, you can take into account the importance of any sections of the course by increasing the proportion of questions on these sections in the total number of questions. But this is not always convenient for the test compiler, because the most important sections do not always contain the most material.

The theory of educational testing should be formed on the basis of particular laws and regularities of such scientific areas as informatiology, general statistics, statistical acceptance control, qualimetry, pedagogy, psychology, operations research, decision theory, etc. Direct application of theoretical developments from these scientific areas does not provide noticeable practical results in the assessment of knowledge due to the intangibility of knowledge as an object of research. The task of forming the theory of educational testing can be formulated as the task of finding the optimal structure of specific laws and patterns of testology, which makes it possible to evaluate knowledge with a given error.

To solve problems of this class, genetic methods based on the implementation of genetic algorithms are most successfully used, which make it possible to carry out a directed enumeration of particular laws and patterns in the most appropriate directions for the formation of a domestic theory of educational testing.

Unlike the traditional random search for acceptable solutions, genetic search algorithms use analogues or proximity of existing solutions in many areas of knowledge to search for an optimal set of specific laws that ensure the objectivity, reliability and accuracy of estimating the level of knowledge reproduced by students in testing procedures. Such a directed enumeration of particular laws is evolutionary and has many similarities with the operators used in genetic algorithms and procedures that occur with living organisms in nature.

The main properties of educational tests are proposed to be formed on populations of particular laws of such scientific branches as: information science; psychology, pedagogy and psychodiagnostics; logics; probability theory; search theory; theory of fuzzy sets; game theory; theory of statistical decisions; acceptance sampling control.

In these studies, the possibilities of the so-called "absolute time scale of knowledge assessment" are explored. Its principles are formulated. The stages of a sequential transition from the traditional form of exams to the test form of this approach are formulated, on their basis - the requirements for the creation of test materials for this approach.

The experience of using this approach at the entrance exams at Tver State University for 4 years is analyzed.

The diagnostic potential of this approach is being studied. The principle of "three-level abstraction" for diagnostic testing is formulated.

The methodology is based on the fact that the educational process is a special case of the technological process and it should be characterized by the same methods of analysis that are adopted for production processes. However, one cannot blindly transfer such methods, especially when it comes to meaningful analysis of the process.

In order to analyze the educational process, it is necessary to have, firstly, a criterion for the quality of education, and, secondly, to trace its change over time. As the most informative criterion for the quality of education, one should use the degree of students' learning - SDA. This criterion is based on the statistics of the marks received by students for the performance of individual tasks or tests. Estimates are included in the SDA with a "weight" equal to the integral of the probability of obtaining a given estimate for some "typical" distribution of estimates.

The testing procedure involves the analysis of answers to a sequence of test tasks of a certain complexity. If the answer is correct, then it is assumed that the student's level of preparation is higher than the complexity of the presented task and he is able to solve problems of a given complexity, otherwise he is incapable. This is similar to estimating the gradient of some hypothetical regression function, in which the gradient is itself a random variable.

It is proposed to use the following approach. We believe that if the tested person has solved the task, then he has a desire to solve a more difficult task. If not, then they will make another attempt to solve a task of the same complexity. If it is also not solved, then a problem of reduced complexity is presented. If a less complex task is not immediately solved, then a task of less complexity is proposed for solution. Similarly, there is a process of increasing the complexity of tasks. As a result, if we exclude the stage of learning when solving problems, the student will choose for himself a certain level of complexity, around which the complexity of tasks will blur.

Thus, the function of the "level of knowledge" is the transformation of the function of the "complexity" of the task through the "ability to solve problems" of a certain "complexity". In this statement, the terms "level of knowledge", "problem-solving ability" and "complexity" are vague. Therefore, to formalize these concepts, it is advisable to use the apparatus of fuzzy sets. In addition, in this formulation, there is a noticeable difference between "complexity" and "ability to solve problems."

The concepts of "complexity" and "knowledge level" are some fuzzy variables (only variables, although they are set by a function), while "problem-solving ability" is a fuzzy ratio of fuzzy variables "complexity" and "knowledge level". The score is also a variable, however this variable may not be analyzed as it is a transformation of "level of knowledge".

We will call direct testing a method of controlling the student's knowledge, in which the structure of the test (i.e., the set and order of presenting test items) does not depend on the actual answers of the student. Almost all currently existing tests operate in direct testing mode, but most often they implement only the simplest and far from the most effective methods knowledge assessment.

A detailed analysis of pedagogical techniques and methods of “live” dialogue communication between the teacher and the testee showed that at least five parameters can be distinguished, the values ​​of which affect the organization of the process of monitoring and evaluating knowledge.

The purpose of testing is determined by the main question, the answer to which should be obtained as a result of testing - a) does the student have a uniform level of knowledge throughout the material (testing the breadth of knowledge) or b) does the student have systematic knowledge on the topics of the test tasks presented to him (testing the depth of knowledge ).

The type of testing has two meanings - credit or examination. The results of the mastery test are presented in binary format: “pass” or “fail”. In the course of mastery testing, the “pass” mark is set if the student demonstrates knowledge that exceeds some a priori predetermined threshold value.

During exam testing according to the sum of points scored by the trainee during the test, the final assessment of the trainee's knowledge (which in the general case has more than two acceptable values) is calculated, for which the sum of points is projected onto the applied assessment scale.

The complexity of the test is characterized by the level of knowledge that the student must demonstrate when performing it. It is determined by the degree of complexity of the test tasks that can be presented to the student. Studies allow us to talk about at least three levels of test complexity - standard, increased and reduced.

The level of control determines the degree of strictness of checking the depth of knowledge. The study of methods for conducting test and examination surveys shows that we can talk about four different levels of severity in assessing answers to test tasks (strict control; identifying the most important knowledge; identifying the simplest knowledge; identifying any existing knowledge).

And, finally, monitoring the condition of early termination of testing involves the early termination of the test in a situation where the continuation of testing becomes impractical. The first of these conditions is considered to be the exceeding of the test duration limit. The second condition is the termination of testing and the presentation of an unsatisfactory grade when a priori given number of incorrect answers is received.

The variety of possible combinations of the values ​​of the five proposed characteristics allows us to speak about the existence of a very extensive family of direct knowledge testing algorithms (for example, examination assessment of the depth of knowledge with increased complexity and strict control, or test assessment of the breadth of knowledge with standard complexity and control of the maximum duration of testing, etc. ).

Conclusion

The introduction of new information technologies in educational institutions that began in our country in the early 1980s - teaching with the help of pedagogical software, as well as the use of testing programs - gave more than modest results. Among the many well-known reasons for this (financial, technical, organizational, methodological difficulties), we note one: the psychological rejection by teachers of "computer" methods of teaching and knowledge control, especially highly qualified, creatively working. They have reasons for this: there are a large number of bad programs that do not meet the main psychological and pedagogical principles of education, unsuccessfully realizing the main stages of the process of mastering knowledge; as a rule, there is no methodological support; the time and effort spent on mastering computers, studying the program, and supporting the appropriate infrastructure turn out to be prohibitively large; when using even good systems, the role of the teacher in the educational process is leveled, disappears creative nature his work; there is no incentive system for innovative teachers mastering new information technologies.

This situation can and should be changed. Technological progress has advanced rapidly, modern computing and telecommunications systems have achieved tremendous results over the past few years in terms of speed, volume of processed and stored information. The development of software design systems (object-oriented visual programming systems, DBMS, neural network modeling systems, etc.) has given engineers and system analysts the most powerful tools for developing and implementing the most fantastic projects.

List of used literature

1. Avanesov B.C. Composition of test tasks. Educational book for university teachers, school teachers, graduate students and students of pedagogical universities. 2nd ed., Rev. and add. M.: Adept. - 2002.

2. Vankov E.A. "Technologies of computer testing" // Computer, 2002. - No. 3.

3. Granitskaya A.S. Teach to think and act: Adaptive system of teaching at school: Book. for the teacher. M.: Enlightenment. - 2001 .

4. Kazarinov A.S., Kultysheva A.Yu., Miroshnichenko A.A. Technology of adaptive validity of test items: Textbook. Glazov: GSPI, 1999.

5. Kalney V.A., Shishov S.E. Technology for monitoring the quality of education in the "teacher-student" system: A guide for the teacher. Moscow: Pedagogical Society of Russia, 1999.

6. Kasyanova N. V. “Creating a computer control system as a result of new information technologies in education”, East Ukrainian National University (VNU), Ukraine, Lugansk // materials of the ITO-2001 conference.

7. Mayorov A.N. Tests: design, conduct, use. Second edition - St. Petersburg: Education and culture, 1997.

8. Moiseev V.B., Usmanov V.V., Tarantseva K.R., Pyatirublevy L.G. "Estimation of test results based on expert-analytical methods". Open Education Journal, No. 3, 2001, pp. 32-36.

9. Rudinsky I.D. "Method of adaptive automated knowledge control". Collection of conference materials, 2001.

10. Chelyshkova M.B. Development of pedagogical tests based on modern mathematical models: Uch.posobie. M.: Research Center for Quality Problems in Training Specialists, 1995.

Vankov E.A. "Technologies of computer testing" // Computer, 2002. - No. 3

Avanesov B.C. Composition of test tasks. Educational book for university teachers, school teachers, graduate students and students of pedagogical universities. 2nd ed., Rev. and add. M.: Adept. – 2002

3 Granitskaya A.S. Teach to think and act: Adaptive system of teaching at school: Book. for the teacher. M.: Enlightenment. – 2001

Kasyanova N. V. "Creating a computer control system as a result of new information technologies in education", East Ukrainian National University (VNU), Ukraine, Lugansk // materials of the conference ITO-2001

Kazarinov A.S., Kultysheva A.Yu., Miroshnichenko A.A. Technology of adaptive validity of test items: Textbook. Glazov: GSPI, 1999

Chelyshkova M.B. Development of pedagogical tests based on modern mathematical models: Uch.posobie. M.: Research Center for Quality Problems in Training Specialists, 1995

Moiseev V.B., Usmanov V.V., Tarantseva K.R., Pyatirublevy L.G. "Estimation of test results based on expert-analytical methods". Open Education Journal, No. 3, 2001, pp. 32-36

Mayorov A.N. Tests: design, conduct, use. Second edition - St. Petersburg: Education and culture, 1997

Rudinsky I.D. "Method of adaptive automated knowledge control". Collection of conference materials, 2001

Kalney V.A., Shishov S.E. Technology for monitoring the quality of education in the "teacher-student" system: A guide for the teacher. M.: Pedagogical Society of Russia, 1999

Pedagogical testing

Pedagogical testing is a form of measuring students' knowledge based on the use of pedagogical tests. It includes the preparation of high-quality tests, the actual testing and subsequent processing of the results, which assesses the training of the test-takers.

pedagogical test is a tool for assessing student learning, consisting of a system of test tasks, a standardized procedure for conducting, processing and analyzing the results.

Test classification

Tests can be classified according to various criteria:

Traditional test

A traditional test contains a list of questions and various options answers. Each question is worth a certain number of points. The result of the traditional test depends on the number of questions that were answered correctly. According to Avanesov V.S., the traditional test is a system of tasks presented in order of increasing complexity at the same time, with the same scoring system for all those tested [ source?] .

Adaptive test

A special type of test in which each subsequent task is selected depending on the answers to previous tasks. The sequence of tasks and their number in this type of test is determined dynamically. The most significant advantages of computer adaptive testing over traditional ones are:

• the ability to adapt to the level of knowledge of the person being tested (you will not have to answer too complex or too simple questions);
• saving time and effort by reducing the number of tasks (the length of the test can be reduced by up to 60%) without losing the level of reliability.

Forms of test tasks (on examples)

Multiple Choice Tasks (Closed Tasks)

Tasks with the choice of one correct answer

Tasks with the choice of one wrong answer

Compliance tasks

Multiple choice questions

Sequence Ordering

Questions with an open answer

Test

A test task is an integral part of a pedagogical test that meets the requirements of manufacturability, form, content and, in addition, statistical requirements:

• known difficulty;
• sufficient variation in test scores;
• positive correlation of task scores with scores for the entire test

Types of tasks in the test

Closed:

• assignment of alternative answers;
• multiple choice tasks;
• assignments to restore compliance;
• tasks to establish the correct sequence.

Open:

• tasks of free presentation;
• add-on tasks.

Functions

Testing in pedagogy performs three main interrelated functions: diagnostic, teaching and educational:

• Diagnostic function is to identify the level of knowledge, skills, abilities of the student. This is the main and most obvious function of testing. In terms of objectivity, breadth and speed of diagnosis, testing surpasses all other forms. pedagogical control.
• Teaching function testing consists in motivating the student to intensify work on the assimilation of educational material. To enhance the learning function of testing, additional measures to stimulate students can be used, such as: distribution by the teacher of an approximate list of questions for self-preparation, the presence of leading questions and tips in the test itself, joint analysis of test results.
• educational function manifests itself in the frequency and inevitability of test control. This disciplines, organizes and directs the activities of students, helps to identify and eliminate gaps in knowledge, forms the desire to develop their abilities.

Advantages and disadvantages

Compared to other forms of knowledge control, testing has its advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages

• Testing is a more qualitative and objective method of assessment, its objectivity is achieved by standardizing the procedure for conducting, checking the quality indicators of tasks and tests as a whole.
• Testing is a fairer method, it puts all students on an equal footing, both in the control process and in the evaluation process, practically eliminating the subjectivity of the teacher. According to the English association NEAB, which deals with the final assessment of students in the UK, testing can reduce the number of appeals by more than three times, make the assessment procedure the same for all students, regardless of place of residence, type and type of educational institution in which students study.
• Tests are a more voluminous tool, since testing can include tasks on all topics of the course, while the oral exam usually has 2-4 topics, and the written one - 3-5. This allows you to reveal the knowledge of the student throughout the course, eliminating the element of chance when pulling out a ticket. With the help of testing, you can establish the level of knowledge of the student in the subject as a whole and in its individual sections.
• The test is a more accurate tool, so, for example, a test assessment scale of 20 questions consists of 20 divisions, while the usual knowledge assessment scale has only four.
• Testing is more efficient from an economic point of view. The main costs during testing fall on the development of high-quality tools, that is, they are of a one-time nature. The cost of conducting the test is much lower than with written or oral control. Testing and monitoring the results in a group of 30 people takes one and a half to two hours, an oral or written exam - at least four hours.
• Testing is a softer tool, they put all students on an equal footing, using a single procedure and common assessment criteria, which leads to a decrease in pre-examination nervous tension.

disadvantages

• The development of high-quality test tools is a long, laborious and expensive process. Standard test suites for most disciplines have not yet been developed, and those developed are usually of very poor quality.
• The data obtained by the teacher as a result of testing, although they include information about knowledge gaps in specific sections, do not allow us to judge the reasons for these gaps.
• The test does not allow to test and evaluate high, productive levels of knowledge related to creativity, that is, probabilistic, abstract and methodological knowledge.
• The breadth of coverage of topics in testing has and reverse side. The student during testing, unlike the oral or written exam, does not have enough time for any in-depth analysis of the topic.
• Ensuring the objectivity and fairness of the test requires the adoption of special measures to ensure the confidentiality of test items. When re-applying the test, it is desirable to make changes to the tasks.
• There is an element of randomness in testing. For example, a student who did not answer a simple question may give the correct answer to a more complex one. The reason for this can be both an accidental mistake in the first question, and guessing the answer in the second. This distorts the test results and leads to the need to take into account the probabilistic component in their analysis.

Notes

Literature

• Avanesov V. S. Composition of test tasks. - M., Testing Center, 2002.
• Zorin S.F. Development of an automated system for monitoring students' knowledge in the discipline "Enterprise Economics". MGVMI, 2007.
• Mayorov A.N. Theory and practice of creating tests for the education system: How to choose, create and use tests for educational purposes. M: Intellect-Centre, 2002.
• Morev I. A. Educational information technologies. Part 2. Pedagogical measurements: Textbook. - Vladivostok: Dalnevost Publishing House. un-ta, 2004.
• Neiman Yu. M., Khlebnikov V. A. Pedagogical testing as a measurement. Part 1. - M .: Testing Center of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, 2002.
• Chelyshkova M. B. Theory and practice of designing pedagogical tests. Uch. Benefit. - M.: Logos, 2002.
• Kabanova T. A., Novikov V. A. Testing in modern education. Uch. Benefit. - M.: Higher school, 2010.
• Kaziev V. M. An Introduction to Practice Testing. - M .: Intuit.ru, Binom. Knowledge Lab, 2008.

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Definition of the Pedagogical Test

pedagogical test- task system specific form, a certain content, increasing difficulty - a system created to objectively assess the structure and qualitatively measure the level of preparedness of students. Test - by direct value English word test - any sample, any test. In this sense, the term "test" is used in engineering, biology, medicine and chemistry. Test in psychological and pedagogical research– sets of tasks normalized in terms of execution time and difficulty, used for comparative study of group and individual characteristics.

Tests are widely used in applied psychology. It was in this area that methodological criteria for the design, application, verification and processing of tests were developed. These criteria, with some clarifications, should be recognized as mandatory for pedagogical tests as well. The test acts as a measuring tool, so it must meet strict and clear methodological requirements. A randomly selected set of tasks cannot be called a test.

Tests cannot be considered as a universal and comprehensive tool for studying the level of upbringing. For each task of the test and the entire test, since it is composed of homogeneous tasks, are aimed at revealing a limited set of personality traits, and the fewer signs are included in the complex, the clearer the possible interpretation of the results and the better the test performs its function. It is best if the task reveals only one sign, one quality (property) of the personality. The task aimed at its detection immediately and without the possibility of subsequent isolation of a group of features makes interpretation difficult. The success or failure of the subject does not receive a single and unambiguous assessment, since it may depend on different signs. The teacher, without such an assessment, will not be able to come to a conclusion about the reasons that determined the final result, and is unlikely to formulate clear conclusions and correct the measures of educational influence.

The testing method has certain limits of application. There are such characteristics of a schoolchild's upbringing that are so complex and multifaceted that test methods for their identification cannot be applied. There has not yet been found a test equivalent of what could be called the general readiness or upbringing of the student. Many teachers and methodologists attach great importance to this characteristic. Tests have only the ability to represent individual components of this complex whole.

We also have to take into account the fact that characteristics that do not have a clear content cannot become an object of testing at all. In particular, the characterization of general development and upbringing is also distinguished by the ambiguity of the content. The teacher, of course, can stipulate in advance that this characteristic, according to his view, consists of such and such simple and measurable individual characteristics. In this case, the task that he sets himself is amenable to solution. The only question is whether he will be able to substantiate his view of this characteristic.

Consider the relationship of personality tests with other quantitative methods. It would be a mistake to consider as tests all, without exception, the quantitative methods used in research into the problems of education. The essence of the method of evaluative classifications is that individuals (“appraisers”, “judges”) who are well acquainted with a given object evaluate it according to certain standard criteria, scales, etc. Through appropriate statistical processing, individual estimates are transformed into an aggregate quantitative indicator. However, individuals who are the subjects of evaluation classifications are not only not subjected to any standardized test, but in many cases are not even made aware of the evaluation being carried out. The ideas on the basis of which evaluators make their judgments are formed in them over a long period of communication or observations in everyday life.

Like all other methods of pedagogical control, the test has certain advantages and disadvantages. When used correctly and skillfully, it can give the teacher a lot of important information that cannot be obtained in any other way. The advantage of the test is that all the tasks formulated in it, being previously deeply thought out and experimentally verified, reveal in their totality, in the shortest possible time, the characteristics of the student that are of interest to the researcher. Another, even more important advantage of the test is its objectivity. It is known that the teacher unwittingly introduces a certain amount of subjectivity into the assessments of the qualities of students - in this case, into the assessments of the students themselves. This shade of subjectivism is often justified by the fact that the teacher, who has accumulated a large stock of observations about each student, cannot get rid of the fact that some features of behavior, in his deep conviction, arose out of order, turned out to be the result of an unfavorable combination of chances.

A researcher who starts using tests in his work for the first time must solve such most significant tasks as: 1) development of the test itself; 2) achieving its satisfactory reliability; 3) obtaining satisfactory test validity.

Science Based Test is a method that meets established standards of reliability and validity. In the requirements for checking the test for reliability and validity, an important methodological idea is realized that only a true method leads to true knowledge. Thus, the quality of pedagogical information turns out to be dependent on the quality of the tools used for this.

The test cannot be considered completed if it has not received a satisfactory score on reliability. The concept of reliability in testology has two meanings. On the one hand, this refers to the reliability of the test as a specific tool. On the other hand, speaking of reliability, we mean the relative immutability of the subject that we measure. When evaluating the reliability of a test, it is assumed that the more reliable the test, the more homogeneous it is.

Validity- the degree of conformity of the test to its purpose. When establishing reliability, the researcher finds everything necessary and sufficient in the test itself: he compares one part of the tasks (with even numbers) with another (with odd numbers). But this is not enough to establish validity. Validity can only be inferred by comparing test scores with some criterion, with some score outside the test; it is usually called the external criterion.

TOPIC: Testing as a form of pedagogical control

Introduction

Currently, in all countries of the world there is a problem of increasing the reliability and effectiveness of quality control in education. To solve it, various systems of pedagogical monitoring are developed and tested, built mainly on the normative test control of students' knowledge. Comparative international studies of educational achievements of students in various fields of knowledge are being carried out. Test technologies have firmly established themselves in international educational practice as a tool for an objective assessment of knowledge. For the last decade, the domestic education system has been following this path, actively mastering test technologies.

The development of state educational standards, the introduction of new teaching technologies and the control of students' knowledge attracted the interest of the general pedagogical community in tests. As part of many pedagogical innovations, testing allows you to obtain objective assessments of the level of knowledge, check the compliance of the requirements for the preparation of graduates with the specified standards, and identify gaps in the preparation of students.

Testing is a significant step towards the development of a methodology for monitoring the assimilation of educational material by students. The introduction of testing allows for a smooth transition from subjective and largely intuitive assessments to objective ones. However, like any other pedagogical innovation, this step should be carried out on a strictly scientific basis, relying on the results of pedagogical experiments and scientific research. Testing should not replace the traditional methods of pedagogical control, but should only supplement them to some extent.

The purpose of the abstract is to study the features of pedagogical testing as a means of controlling students' knowledge.

In accordance with the goal, the following tasks of the abstract are formulated.

Firstly, to study the theoretical foundations of pedagogical testing as a means of controlling students' knowledge;

Secondly, to analyze the psychological and pedagogical aspects of testing;

Thirdly, consider pedagogical tests, their content, structure, forms and types;

Fourth, draw appropriate conclusions.

Methodological basis writing the essay served as the scientific works of domestic and foreign scientists.

Chapter 1 Theoretical Foundations of Pedagogical Testing as a Means of Controlling Students' Knowledge

1.1 Pedagogical control and its functions

In traditional domestic didactics, the following terms are used: control, verification, evaluation and accounting of knowledge. Let us briefly consider the content of these definitions.

Control - checking, as well as constant monitoring for the purposes of verification or supervision. In domestic pedagogy, learning control is understood as: an administrative-formal procedure for checking the work of a teacher and institutions; management function, the results of which serve to make management decisions; an integral part, a component of the learning process, organically associated with the study of program material by its comprehension, consolidation and application; formation of skills and abilities. The essence of testing learning outcomes is to identify the level of assimilation of knowledge by students, which must comply with the state educational standard for a given field of knowledge (program, subject). The subject of control in the university is the evaluation of the results of the organized pedagogical process.

In the cybernetic view, control is viewed as a feedback principle characteristic of the control of a self-regulating system. The control learning activities provides students with external feedback (control performed by the teacher) and internal feedback (self-control of students). It takes place at all stages (stages, links, cycles) of training, but acquires special significance after studying any section of the program and completing the training stage.

Control is interpreted in didactics as pedagogical diagnostics. In this case, the setting of learning goals plays an important role. V.P. Bespalko believes that the goal of the pedagogical process is set diagnostically if the following conditions are met:

1. such an accurate and definite description of the formed personal quality that it can be unmistakably and unambiguously differentiated from any other personality traits;

2. there is a method, a “tool” for the unambiguous identification of a diagnosable quality of a personality in the process of objective control of its formation;

3. it is possible to quantitatively measure the intensity of the diagnosed quality based on control data;

4. there is a quality assessment scale based on measurement results.

Learning control as part of the didactic process and the didactic procedure raises problems about the functions of verification, its content, types, methods and forms of control, about measurements, about the success of learning and the failure of students.

It is well known that the main tasks of control are: identifying gaps in training; its correction; planning for subsequent training; recommendations for the prevention of failure.

Pedagogical requirements for control in training, providing high results:

1. individual nature of control;

2. systematic and regular control at all stages of education, its combination with other aspects of students' educational activities;

3. a variety of forms of control, ensuring the implementation of educational, training and developmental functions;

4. Comprehensive control. It should cover all sections of the curriculum, provide a test of theoretical knowledge and practical skills;

5. a differentiated approach that takes into account the specifics of each academic subject and the individual typological features and intellectual capabilities of the student;

6. the unity of the requirements of teachers who control the educational work of students in a given group (class);

7. economical in terms of teacher and student time, providing analysis verification work and their evaluation in a relatively short time;

8. objective and reasonable.

According to V.S. Avanesov, the principles of pedagogical control include: the principle of connection of control with upbringing, education and training; the principle of objectivity; the principle of justice and publicity; principle of scientific character and efficiency; the principle of systematicity and comprehensiveness.

In pedagogical practice, when exercising control, the question is usually raised of what exactly is checked in training with the help of control. In domestic pedagogy, it is generally accepted that the knowledge, skills and abilities of students are subject to verification. They are described both at the general didactic, supra-subject level, and at the subject level, usually in the form of materials for the program on the subject.

In Western pedagogy, verifiable learning outcomes are described as cognitive, social, and emotional learning goals. According to P.I. Pidkasistogo, the efforts of modern domestic didactics are directed towards this.

One of its problems is that the learning objectives, which are the results to be tested, are formed in terms of the behavior observed learning activities students. In this case, their presence, manifestation in one form or another can be recorded. They can be measured, i.e. the level of formation of knowledge, skills and abilities (competencies) can be established.

From the 50s. In the past century, a taxonomy of the goals of studying abroad (B. Blum) has been developed precisely on the basis of this approach: diagnostically set goals make it possible to objectively detect and evaluate the stage of their achievement.

In the cognitive area: the memorization and reproduction of educational material is checked, the ability to perform various activities with him. In addition to knowledge, the content of the achievement test is:

1) social and general psychological development of students;

2) the formation of motives for teaching and activity, such social qualities as a sense of responsibility, moral standards and behavior.

The functions of control consist in establishing the level of assimilation of knowledge at all stages of education, in measuring the effectiveness of the pedagogical process. In pedagogy, the following control functions are distinguished:

1. Diagnostic. It is aimed at identifying the phenomenon of interest, its evaluation and the adoption of a management decision based on the results of control. Pedagogical diagnostics is the most important part of the scientific system of pedagogical control.

2. Organizing. Manifested in its identification on the organization of training. Depending on the results of the control, a decision is made on the need for additional classes and consultations, on the provision of methodological assistance to underachieving students, in encouraging hard-working students and teachers.

3. Verification (inspector) function. Control indicators serve as the main basis for the analysis of the results of the exercise. Control data state not only the results and evaluation of the activities of individual students and teachers, but also the state of educational work of the entire educational control.

4. Educational. When performing control tasks, the acquired knowledge is repeated and consolidated through their clarification, addition and/or rethinking. Control also teaches how to rationally organize learning activities.

5. Developing. It lies in the fact that control provides more opportunities for the development of the student's personality, his cognitive abilities. Any form of control requires from a person a sharpened work of attention, memory, thinking, imagination, the ability to compare and systematize existing knowledge.

6. Educational. Testing knowledge always affects the emotional sphere of the individual, since individual efforts to master the educational material become the subject of public judgment. Often the reputation of the student and his status in the team (group, class) depend on the grades. Control disciplines, fosters a sense of responsibility for their work, stimulates a conscientious attitude towards it. Competent control encourages students to improve their knowledge and skills, develops self-evaluative judgments.

7. Methodical. It lies in the fact that the test teaches not only the student, but also the teacher, allowing him to see his own mistakes, to choose the best learning options.

In the pedagogical literature, the following types of control are usually distinguished according to time: preliminary, current, milestone (periodic) and final.

1. Preliminary (diagnostic) control is necessary for the successful management of the educational process. It allows you to determine the initial level of students' preparation in order to focus on the permissible complexity of the educational material. Analysis of the preliminary control data also allows the teacher to make changes to didactic material, teaching methodology, etc.

2. current control provides continuous information about the progress and quality of mastering the educational material, promptly make changes to the training. The current check is not so much an inspection as a training, as it is associated with the consolidation, repetition and analysis of educational material. There are two requirements for current control: a) it should not be reduced to formal, mechanical memorization of educational material; b) it should be carried out systematically, regularly. Current control is operational, flexible, diverse in methods, forms and means.

3. Milestone (periodic) control allows you to determine the quality of students' study of educational material in a given discipline (section, topic, module, etc.). Usually it is held 3-4 times a semester (quarter).

Colloquia can serve as an example of boundary control, control tasks, abstracts on the topic, graphic works, tests, etc. It also takes into account the data of the current control.

4. The final control serves to identify the final results of training in a particular academic discipline or cycle of disciplines. Its task is to fix the minimum of training that further education provides. The final control is integrating. It is used to judge the overall achievements of students. As a rule, it is carried out at transfer and semester exams, qualification tests, state and final exams, defense of a graduation project, etc.

Methods of control - methods by which the effectiveness of educational activities of students and pedagogical work teacher. Control methods are also defined as methods of diagnostic activity that allow feedback in the learning process, in order to obtain data on the success of training, the effectiveness of the pedagogical process. They should provide systematic, complete, accurate and prompt information on the progress of the learning process.

E.G. Skibitsky, V.V. Egorov, S.M. Udartseva, G.M. Smirnova, I.I. Erakhtina, V.V. Gotting offer the following methods of control:

1. Oral control - a monologic response of students or a question-answer form - a conversation. Oral control, as current, is carried out hourly (by class) in individual, frontal or combined forms.

2. An individual survey of students allows the teacher to obtain more complete and accurate data on the level of assimilation. However, he leaves other students passive in the classroom.

3. Test and oral exam are the most active and thorough test of knowledge for a certain period of study (disadvantages: lottery, subjectivity).

5. Current control of knowledge - observation is widely used, a systematic study of students in training, the detection of many indicators, manifestations of behavior that indicate the formation of knowledge, skills and other learning outcomes. The results of observations are not recorded in official documents, but are taken into account by the teacher to correct learning.

A relatively new method (means) for checking learning outcomes are didactic tests. They represent a set of standardized tasks for a specific educational material, which establishes the degree of assimilation of it by students.

1.2 Testinginpedagogicalmcontrole

At present, non-traditional forms of training and control are widely used in the education system. These forms include pedagogical tests. However, when applying tests, teachers face many problems of an objective and subjective nature. Problems of a subjective nature are primarily related to the personality of the teacher himself, his attitude to the use of tests. Problems of an objective nature are associated with an insufficient number of methodical literature, which would allow the teacher to learn how to write tests that meet certain requirements.

The word “test” of English origin and in the original language means “test”, “test”.

V.S. Avanesov gives a clear definition of the pedagogical test: “The pedagogical test is a set of interrelated tasks of increasing complexity that allow you to reliably and validly assess knowledge and other personality characteristics of interest to the teacher.

In this definition, the main emphasis is on a system of interrelated tasks of increasing complexity.

V.S. Avanesov notes the lexical features of the pedagogical test: “in scientific definitions, the concept of “pedagogical test” is considered in two existing senses:

As a method of pedagogical measurement;

As a result of applying the test as a method of measurement, consisting of a limited set of tasks” .

V.S. Avanesov highlights the so-called traditional tests, which represent the unity of three systems:

Formal task system of increasing difficulty;

Statistical characteristics of tasks and subjects.

There are various definitions of the concept of “test”, which differ from each other, but they all contain the following essential features of this concept: a specially prepared and tested set of tasks of a specific form and increasing complexity; the task system allows you to qualitatively assess the structure of students' knowledge; effectively measure the level of learning of students. It is significant that many scientists-teachers, when considering the essence of the designated concept, significantly expand the content of this concept, including the structure of the test and the technology of its implementation as signs (V.V. Zinoviev, V.P. Levin, A.N. Mayorov, etc. .). Many of the authors relied on the concept of V.S. Avanesov about the essence of the concept of “pedagogical test” as a system of interrelated tasks of increasing complexity, allowing a reliable and valid assessment of knowledge and skills in a particular area of ​​content.

The pedagogical test is considered precisely as a system, as an ordered set of test tasks. Tasks are those elements, the “bricks” of which a pedagogical test is compiled.

The attitude towards tests in education is not unambiguous. In connection with the information richness of the educational process, the test form of knowledge control significantly saves and allows in many cases to overcome the subjectivity of grading, increase the motivational side of learning. The use of test control contributes to the consideration of students' achievements in the process of moving from one level of mastering the material to another.

1.3 Psychological and pedagogical aspects of testing

The introduction of a new form of control-testing into the context of training leads to a change, first of all, in the perception and attitudes of control, the whole situation changes, including the psychological situation associated with the formation of a positive attitude towards them among test participants, with acceptance, approval or rejection, rejection tests as a form of control.

N.F. Efremova conducted a diagnostic study aimed at identifying an assessment of the methods of traditional and test control (about 500 people took part in it). The following was found:

At the same time, the objectivity of the testing procedure and the independence of the assessment from the opinion of the teacher, as well as the postulate of non-disclosure of grades, received the highest score;

Among the advantages of traditional control were evaluated: the possibility of assistance, low level task difficulties.

Many studies have noted the importance of psychological preparation for testing:

The degree of improvement in test results depends on the abilities and knowledge of students, the number and type of preliminary classes, and the characteristics of tests.

Preparation for testing is most useful for weak students; it does not significantly affect the results of strong students.

Degree positive impact preliminary preparation for changing test results is directly dependent on the closeness of the relationship between the content training tasks and test content.

Preliminary preparation reduces anxiety in the behavior of the subjects during testing and motivates them to complete the test.

Pre-test training helps the memory mechanisms work in a strictly time-limited control event.

Equally important is motivation as a single system of goals, needs (a dynamic process of managing human behavior), which encourages an individual to both consciously relate to learning and control, as an integral part, and to be active in educational and cognitive work. Motivation performs the following functions in education: motivating, guiding, organizing and semantic. When testing, motivation is one of the main psychological factors for the success of control.

The level of motivation for educational and cognitive activity is always influenced by complexes of objective factors (such as the history of the subject being studied, the authority of the teacher) and subjective (life plans of a person, the desire for self-realization, the desire to have good grades). The process of inducing a person to testing often turns out to be a very complex socio-psychological, intellectual, emotional and volitional act. A person who has experience in performing tests has a significant advantage over those who participate in testing for the first time: after all, he has overcome the feeling of the unknown, developed confidence in himself and his abilities. American psychologist Anna Anastasi believes that a person experienced in working with test format tasks has eleven percent higher performance than inexperienced test subjects.

At the same time, two important components of test anxiety are distinguished - emotional and preoccupied anxiety. The emotional component of test anxiety covers feelings, physiological reactions, such as tension. The preoccupation is associated with negative thoughts, with the expectation of failure on a test, and with concern about the consequences of failure. In this regard, psychologists are developing a technology “ behavioral therapy”.

Studies by psychologist Anna Anastasi and a number of other psychologists show that test anxiety can subside without “therapeutic intervention.” Test anxiety is a complex phenomenon caused by many different, in fact and content, causes specific to each individual. Among the ways to overcome this type of anxiety include the improvement of language communicative and speech skills and abilities, the correct development of instructions and manuals for tests.

The methodology for conducting testing should be based on the personality of teachers, not only those who participate as experts in the creation of the test, but also those who are associated with the process of conducting this form of control. That is why it is necessary to say about ethical standards and principles of testing in education. It is worth noting that they, first of all, should be dictated by the code professional ethics teacher. Being part of a set of universal human norms that regulate the behavior of a teacher during testing in accordance with the requirements of duty, professional honesty, and the principles of humanism, they become the basic, fundamental and fundamental principles for standardizing the test.

This rather large group of principles includes:

The principle of confidentiality - defines the rules for non-disclosure of information about test results without the consent of the test subject.

The principle of accessibility is associated with the right of the examinees to get access to a meaningful description and full interpretation of the test results, to receive information identified as a result of the analysis of problems and failures identified in the performance of individual tasks of the test.

The principle of validity and dynamic reflection of development - causes a systematic update of data on the readiness of trainees obtained with the help of tests (monitoring).

The principle of informed consent - implies the consent of the subjects to conduct testing and questioning.

The content selection principle is that the content of the test is defined as a completely optimal display of the content of the material of the academic discipline in the system of created test items.

The principle of scientific reliability - the test includes only the content of the material being checked, which is objectively scientifically true and is subject to some kind of rational argumentation.

Psychological and pedagogical tests in education have profound differences between themselves. Anna Anastasi writes that pedagogical tests evaluate the results of mastering a program course common to all students, and psychological tests are designed to reflect individual perception life experience, differing in the social and economic conditions of its acquisition.

The results of the testing in psychology are used mainly to predict the success of any activity, depending on the obtained qualitative and quantitative assessments of personal characteristics and inclinations, or are advisory in identifying personal problems, to determine ways to overcome them.

Pedagogical tests, in particular, in the final control, give the teacher information about the quantitative assessment of the current level of preparedness of the student, which is intended mainly for making administrative and managerial decisions.

There are a number of external differences between psychological and pedagogical tests in education:

Formulation of tasks (in psychological tests it is usually indirect, in pedagogical tests it is direct)

Diagnostics (in psychological tests there are no “correct” answers, personality characteristics are determined, while pedagogical tests test knowledge, which means that they require a strict correspondence of the subject’s answer to the correct answer).

The goals of interpretation (in psychological tests, personality characteristics are determined, in pedagogical tests, the level of assimilation of knowledge by the subject is revealed).

Sometimes the boundaries between the types of testing under consideration can be blurred, especially in cases where tests are aimed at checking logical thinking and creativity of students.

Thus, since testing is a unique method of monitoring and evaluating knowledge, which allows for a qualitative and quantitative measurement of the level of knowledge, and psychological characteristics, and preferences of the subject, it is necessary to form a psychological atmosphere for the test participant that will allow him to fully open up. That is why, today, the development of methods, requirements and rules for testing is an important task to improve the quality of the educational process.

At the same time, the test form of knowledge control has opponents, which include J. Raven.

Raven criticizes testing in a very harsh manner, while noting both the scientific and ethical aspects of the expansion of testology in the field of education. In his opinion, the refusal by professionals to take into account the damage that the practice of testing causes to the fate of children and the interests of society, "is extremely immoral." This is not only about the lack of validity and predictive reliability of criterion-oriented tests as such, but about the creation of a new type of psychodiagnostics. New diagnostic methods, among them J. Raven, includes the technique of descriptive conclusions, event-behavioral interviews, the procedure for identifying value expectations - must meet a number of fundamentally different requirements compared to generally accepted test measurements: be sensitive to the characteristics of the acquired experience (set of competencies) , which each child will have his own; be applied only if an adequate educational environment is created for this child; take into account his individual abilities, interests and values; fix the dynamics of the development of individual abilities; ensure the identification of different types of children's giftedness.

A separate place in the works of J. Raven is occupied by his arguments about changing the ideology of the education system, which, in his opinion, should be aimed at the formation of a competent personality.

For J. Raven, the concept of competence acts as a leading substantive foundation that allows one to formulate four most important consequences about the need: first, to reconsider the views on the capabilities of each child, because all students can become competent by making their choice in the widest range of activities; accordingly, the teacher needs to learn to see each child in terms of having a unique set of qualities that are important for success in one or another special area; secondly, reformulation of the goals of education; the task of personality development on the basis of individualization of education comes to the fore; thirdly, changes in teaching methods, which should help identify and form the competencies of students, depending on their personal inclinations and interests; the use of the project method is proposed as the main didactic tool; fourthly, a radical rejection of traditional procedures for testing students and evaluating educational programs.

Chapter 2 Pedagogical tests, their content, structure, forms and types

2.1 Historical foundations of pedagogical testing

Modern pedagogical testing has its own history.

F. Galton (1882-1911), exploring individual differences, used a certain set of techniques (to determine auditory, visual sensitivity, reaction time, etc.). F. Galton identified three basic principles of test theory that are currently used:

Application of a series of identical tests to a large number of subjects.

Statistical processing of results.

Selection of evaluation standards.

F. Galton called the tests conducted in his laboratory mental tests.

James McKean Cattell (1860-1944) made the term popular by publishing his article Mental Tests and Measurements in 1890. He developed and used sets of tasks to determine the "intellectual physiognomy". J. Cattell was an ardent supporter and propagandist of the test method, believed that only then the test is a means for conducting a scientific experiment, when the relevant requirements are met:

The same conditions for all subjects - the principle is the basis for the standardization of the testing procedure;

Testing time limit;

The same instructions and a clear understanding by the subjects of what to do - the principle is the basis for standardizing the testing procedure;

The absence of spectators in the laboratory in which the experiment is being carried out;

Equipment for testing;

Conducting statistical analysis of test results - the principle is implemented in the methods of statistical analysis and modeling.

The requirements identified by J. Cattell form the basis of modern testology.

The activity of the French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857-1911), associated with the diagnosis of the level of intelligence development, gave a significant impetus to the development of testology. In 1904, Binet became a member of the commission for the creation in Paris of special schools for mentally handicapped children. It was necessary to separate children capable of learning, but lazy and unwilling to learn, from those suffering from birth defects. In fact, the use of this test was the first attempt to determine individual differences between children by measuring their mental development.

For a long time, tests have been developed as a tool for individual measurements. There was a need to move from individual tests to group tests. In 1917-1919. in the United States, the first group tests for the army appeared. The tests developed by Arthur Sintos Otis (1866-1963) became the most popular. The basic principles used in the preparation of these tests formed the basis of the entire methodology of group tests:

The principle of time limitation.

The principle of detailed instruction, both in relation to the conduct of testing and in relation to the calculation of results.

Introduced tests with sampling method response formation.

Selection of tests after careful statistical processing and experimental verification.

At the same time, methods for processing test results and creating test systems are being developed:

The method of statistical comparison of two series of variables and the introduction of the joint ratio index - the correlation coefficient (F. Galton);

Construction of regression lines of one variable to another (F. Galton);

Correlation theory (K. Pearson, Ch. Spearman);

Factor analysis (L. Thurstone).

W. McCall divided tests into pedagogical ones, the main task of which was to measure the success of students in school disciplines for a certain period of study, as well as the success of applying certain teaching methods, and into psychological ones - to determine a certain level of development.

The development of the first pedagogical test belongs to the American psychologist E. Tondike. The result of his research work in the field of measurement and the use of the test method in pedagogy was the book "Introduction to the theory of psychology and social measurements" (1904). The first standardized pedagogical test, published under the direction of E. Thorndike, equipped with norms - a test for solving arithmetic problems.

1915 - creation of a series of tests with a modified system for calculating test results (Yerks).

At the beginning of the XX century. development and verification of tests are carried out by special public services.

1900 - Establishment of the Board of Entrance Examinations in the United States.

1926 - Adoption by the college board of the SAT test, which was developed for the qualification and professional assessment of the teacher's performance.

1947 - Establishment of the testing service, which is considered the most representative research center.

It can be noted that American authors usually use the so-called empirical strategy, which involves the creation of a large set of test problems without any system or internal logic, and after applying to a large number of subjects, the results are subjected to correlation and factor analysis.

Until 1917, insufficient attention was paid to testing issues in Russia. Practical use tests were received after 1925, when a test commission was created at the pedagogical department of the Institute of School Methods (its tasks included the development of standardized tests for the school). In the spring of 1926, tests based on the American ones came out.

The problem of developing tests was dealt with by prominent Russian psychologists and teachers: P.P. Blonsky, M.S. Bernstein, S.M. Vasileisky, A.M. Schubert etc.

Tests have been developed to measure skills in reading, numeracy and writing; a scale for measuring the mental development of children; tests of the collective test of mental endowment; school success tests for mass surveys of children in normal schools.

In 1936, tests were banned as "bourgeois and harmful." Positive examples of their application were not taken into account. For more than forty years, there has been a period of stagnation in test development and application. The development of testology is associated with the works of N.F. Talyzina on programmed learning, V.P. Bespalko on the problems of pedagogical technology, D.B. Elkonina and others.

At present, practice has positively decided the question of the need for tests in pedagogy. However, this has given rise to a number of problems that the education system as a whole is not ready to solve.

The modern understanding of tests and the testing process can be divided into levels. In the work of A.N. Mayorov identified three such levels:

The current state of testology is at the second level of understanding tests, but there is a desire for the third level through the creation of special testing centers: the Center for Assessing the Quality of Education of the Institute of General Education of the Russian Academy of Education, the center for testing graduates of general educational institutions of the Russian Federation, the Center for psychological and professional testing of Moscow State University, etc. These centers solve a set of didactic tasks:

develop testology taking into account the accumulated world pedagogical and psychological experience with a focus on new information technologies;

develop a quality diagnostic tools for operational, objective control;

develop the apparatus of mathematics and statistics for processing quantitative information based on test results;

provide a transition from the theoretical level of research to the empirical;

create a system for observing the state and changes, assessing and forecasting in relation to the quality of education.

The development and formation of test technology makes it possible to statistically accurately analyze the process of obtaining education and see further prospects for its development.

2.2 Classification of pedagogical tests

Analysis of foreign and domestic literature shows that there are several approaches to this problem.

A brief description of the different types of pedagogical tests is presented in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 - Classification of pedagogical tests

3.3 Requirements for pedagogical tests, their advantages and disadvantages

The modern theory of modeling pedagogical tests considers the testing procedure and the assessment of the knowledge of the examinees as a process of objective measurement, and the results of such measurements obtained by standard mathematical methods, comes with standard accuracy specifications. In the literature on testing, the requirements for pedagogical tests have received a lot of attention. Among them, it should be noted such requirements as the compliance of the test content with the goals of testing, the determination of the significance of the knowledge being tested, the relationship between the content and the form of presentation of test tasks, the compliance of the test content with the level state of the art science, complexity, consistency of the content of the test. According to classical theory testing, most meaningful concepts The criteria that a professionally designed pedagogical test must meet are reliability, validity, and effectiveness.

Reliability of a test is characterized by stability, stability of indicators during repeated measurements using the same test or its equivalent substitute. It is noted that the higher the thematic, meaningful variety of test tasks, the lower the reliability of the test. A test aimed at checking the mastery of a particular topic will always be more reliable than a test aimed at checking the entire section (course), covering a significant amount of material - patterns, concepts, facts.

The reliability of tests significantly depends on the difficulty of their implementation, which is determined by the ratio of correct and incorrect answers to test items. The inclusion in the tests of such tasks, to which all students answer correctly or, conversely, incorrectly, sharply reduces the reliability of the test as a whole. The tasks that are answered correctly by 45-80% of students have the greatest practical value.

The reliability of a test is a characteristic that reflects the accuracy of the measurement and the resistance of the results to the influence of extraneous random factors. This means that a small change in the test conditions and the state of the subjects should lead to an insignificant change in the final results.

It should be noted that an increase in the number of test items contributes to an increase in reliability. However, for real testing it is problematic to create a test with a sufficiently large number of tasks. This is due to time constraints sanitary standards, material costs, human capabilities, etc.

The validity of the test in its content is close to the requirement of completeness, comprehensiveness of verification, proportional representation of all elements of the studied knowledge and skills. The term "validity" from the English. valid - meaningful, valuable. It is always meant that the compiler of the test is obliged to carefully study all sections of the curriculum, study books, to know the purpose and specific objectives of training well. Only then will he be able to make tests that will be effective for a certain category of students.

A clear and precise statement of the question within the limits of acquired knowledge is an essential condition for the validity of the test. If the test goes beyond the limits of the mastered content or does not reach these limits, exceeds the designed level of learning, then it will not be effective for those students to whom it is addressed.

In addition to the considered requirements, the test efficiency indicator is also used. A test that provides, all other things being equal, large quantity responses per unit of time is considered more efficient. For example, in 10 minutes of testing, students can get 5, 8, and 10 answers using various methods for compiling test items.

The advantage of test control is that it is a scientifically sound method. empirical research and in a certain area allows you to overcome speculative assessments of knowledge. It should be noted that the tasks used by many teachers and called by them test ones, in fact, are not at all. Unlike normal tasks, test tasks have a clear, unambiguous answer and are evaluated in a standard way based on the price tag. In the simplest case, a student's grade is the sum of points for correctly completed tasks. Test tasks should be short, clear and correct, without ambiguity. The test itself is a system of tasks of increasing difficulty. Test control can be used as a means of current, thematic and boundary control, and in some cases, final.

Of course, where knowledge and educational material are structured and formalized more easily, as, for example, in the natural sciences, it is easier to compose test items. At the same time, all academic disciplines, including historical ones, are based on basic knowledge. In history, this includes knowledge of events, dates, names, definitions of basic concepts, and much more. Checking basic knowledge by means of test control allows the teacher in the remaining time to pay more attention to communicating with students at the level of concepts and conclusions, to check with traditional forms not so much knowledge as understanding of the problems of a particular academic discipline. It should be emphasized that it is the verification of basic knowledge that is the scope of test control.

Test control without spending much time allows you to interview all students in all sections of the subject. The sum of marks can make up a knowledge rating, which, at the discretion of the teacher, can serve as the basis for exempting the student from the final work. Tests attract students with their unusualness compared to traditional forms of control, encourage them to systematically study the subject, and create additional motivation for learning.

Benefits of test control include:

The individual nature of control, the possibility of exercising control over the work of each student, over his personal educational activities.

The possibility of regular systematic test control at all stages of the learning process.

The possibility of combining it with other traditional forms of pedagogical control.

Comprehensiveness, which means that the pedagogical test can cover all sections of the curriculum, provide a complete test of theoretical knowledge, intellectual and practical skills.

The objectivity of the test control, excluding subjective (often erroneous) value judgments and conclusions of the teacher, based on insufficient study of the level of preparation of students or a biased attitude towards some of them.

Taking into account the specific features of each academic subject and its individual sections through the use of modern development methods and a variety of forms of test tasks.

Possibility of carrying out traditional ("paper") and computerized (in a local network) testing.

Possibility of using modern technology of computer testing.

The possibility of mass large-scale standardized testing by printing and replicating parallel forms (variants) of the test.

Taking into account the individual characteristics of a specific sample of subjects, requiring the use of various methods for developing a test and test tasks in accordance with these characteristics.

The unity of requirements for all subjects, regardless of their past educational achievements.

Standardization of test control.

Differentiation of the scale of test scores, which makes it possible to rank the level of educational achievements in a wide range.

High reliability of test control, which allows us to talk about a full-fledged pedagogical measurement of the level of learning.

High predictive validity of entrance tests, allowing to predict the success of students in the future.

High criterion (current) validity of the final certification tests.

The effectiveness of the pedagogical test, which makes it possible to control any sample of subjects in a short time at minimal cost.

With the proper organization of testing and the application of information security methods, it is possible to eliminate the dishonest attitude of some students to the implementation of written control tests (cheating, using hints, cheat sheets, etc.).

Test control stimulates the constant work of all students, and this is achieved to a certain extent by conducting large-scale testing that is unexpected for the subjects.

Ability to take into account when testing regional features.

The disadvantages of testing include the following:

In test tasks, knowledge is dogmatized, there is no creativity, a joint search for truth.

The solution of any test task contains an element of chance.

Test control contributes to the fragmentation of knowledge.

Testing standardizes knowledge and incompletely develops the thinking skills of students.

Testing checks the student's awareness of certain facts and does not give an idea of ​​the student's abilities and skills [2].

The most significant drawback of the test control of knowledge in our country at the present stage is the abundance of unsystematized and different in quality test material.

Behind recent times new original methods of developing and applying tests have appeared. Modern tests make it possible to reveal the knowledge and abilities of the subjects hidden from a superficial glance.

Thus, the implementation of the advantages of pedagogical testing can be performed only if the requirements of the classical test theory are taken into account, on the basis of which it is possible to ensure the reliability, validity and effectiveness of the test control of students' knowledge. Naturally, not all the necessary characteristics of assimilation can be obtained by means of testing. For example, indicators such as the ability to concretize one's answer with examples, knowledge of facts, the ability to coherently, logically and convincingly express one's thoughts, some other characteristics of knowledge, skills, and abilities cannot be diagnosed by testing. This means that testing must necessarily be combined with other (traditional) forms and methods of testing.

Conclusion

As a result of the theoretical consideration of the material, the following conclusions were drawn.

Test - standardized tasks, the results of which are judged on the psychophysiological and personal characteristics, as well as the knowledge, skills and abilities of the subject.

The pedagogical test, in contrast to the control work, can be considered as a kind of measuring tool of a certain resolution and accuracy. The object of measurement here is extremely specific, and therefore the results depend significantly on the ability to reasonably formalize this object.

A test is a tool consisting of a qualimetrically verified system of test tasks, a standardized procedure for conducting and a pre-designed technology for processing and analyzing results, designed to measure the qualities and properties of a person, which can be changed in the process of systematic learning.

The test is a short, standardized test that allows the quantitative evaluation of results based on their statistical processing.

The selection of the structure of test items depends on what indicators and factors are of interest to the researcher of this group of people. Each of the tasks of the test, in its essence, represents a question, a problem for the subject. The answer to the question is always the elimination of some doubts, hesitation, uncertainty in the situation under consideration in order to obtain new, more accurate knowledge.

Each of the test tasks contains a description of some “situation” taken from nature, production, practical human activity, etc. It can be presented in various “languages”: verbal, symbolic, graphic, drawing, etc. Any description is always approximate, incomplete, and therefore the subject is given a “requirement” to make the task situations more accurate, complete, using for this purpose the “information for the solution” contained in the description of the situation, the text of the task, and also attracting “external in relation to the task information” - scientific facts known to the subject, patterns, etc. In the process of completing the task, it is necessary to remodel the situation by introducing a number of assumptions and abstractions that simplify the solution, moving from one language to another in the description.

Among the tasks of the test should be distinguished:

tasks of an informative nature;

task, the solution of which can be carried out in an algorithmic, formalized way;

problems that require heuristic and non-standardized search.

The information contained in the text of the task can be presented explicitly or in a hidden form, requiring more or less complex operations to extract it, which increases the complexity of tasks. This is first.

Secondly, the test is a “standardized test”, i.e. a test in which all performers are in the same, strictly specified conditions. Only this allows you to compare test results, bring the measurement results to a number. The standardized form of assessment used in the tests makes it possible to correlate the student's level of achievement in the academic subject as a whole and in its individual sections with the average level of achievement of students in the class and the levels of achievement of each of them.

Thirdly, the test allows you to get a "quantitative assessment" of the test results. Since continuously changing, non-discrete quantities are to be measured, special scales are used to bring the measurement results to a number. A scale is a certain sequence of numerical values ​​of the results of measuring operations applied to an empirical system.

The leading idea of ​​the traditional test is the minimum number of tasks, in a short time, quickly, efficiently and at the lowest cost to compare knowledge as much as possible. more test subjects.

The results of the tasks performed by the subjects contain a wide variety of information in a hidden form. There is only one way to extract - to compare the results of a sufficiently large number of tasks (gather statistics). This is the only way to get reliable conclusions.

Bibliography

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Bespalko. - M.: Pedagogy, 2005. - 296 p.

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control in higher education / V.S. Avanesov. - M., 1989. - 168 p.

3. Pedagogy of higher education: textbook. allowance / E.G. Skibitsky, V.V. Egorov, S.M. Udartseva, G.M. Smirnova, I.I. Erakhtina, V.V. Gotting - 2nd ed. add. and reworked. - Karaganda: KSTU, 2013. - 409 p.

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Correct answers in pedagogy tests are marked with "+"

1. The types of punishment in pedagogy include:

A) moral and verbal condemnation,

b) fines and penalties,

c) deprivation of the right to education.

2 - test. The development of pedagogy is due to:

a) a series of scientific and technological revolutions in the twentieth century,

B) the conscious need of society to form the younger generation,

c) the attention of the elite to the problems of development of the lower social strata.

3. Pedagogy is the science of

a) raising a child in educational institutions,

B) education and upbringing of a person, mainly in childhood and adolescence,

c) the free formation of a person's personality from birth to old age.

4. Social pedagogy is a science

A) about the impact of the social environment on the formation of a person's personality,

b) on the upbringing of the child within the framework of the education system,

c) about the forms of interaction between the individual and society.

5. What is a person's worldview?

A) The system of human views on the surrounding reality - nature and society.

b) Awareness of one's own "I" in the process of social interaction.

c) Evaluation of the activities of the state from the point of view of a citizen.

6. The subject of pedagogy is

a) the process of teaching a child in educational institutions,

b) the process of communication between the teacher and the student,

C) the process of formation and development of the personality in the course of its training and education.

7. Socialization is

A) the process of an individual entering the social environment by mastering social norms,

b) the process of teaching students in preschool and school educational institutions,

c) the process of continuous education of the individual during his life.

8. The method of education is

a) a way to stimulate the development of the educated person by presenting him with a standard,

b) a way of forming knowledge, skills and abilities that is relevant for a certain age,

C) a way of influencing the consciousness, will and feelings of the educated person in order to develop certain beliefs in him.

9. Punishment is

A) a method of pedagogical influence that prevents undesirable actions,

b) a method for identifying personality malformations,

c) the main method of education and development of the personality.

10. Personality in pedagogy is expressed as a set

a) knowledge, skills and abilities,

B) social qualities acquired by the individual,

c) biological and social characteristics.

11. Tests - The term "pedagogy"

a) proposed by Voltaire to designate a new direction of philosophy,

B) goes back to an ancient Greek source,

c) was recognized in the 19th century in connection with the successes of developmental psychology.

12. The sources of preschool pedagogy as a science are

a) folk tales and legends,

b) regulations in the field of preschool education,

C) experimental research and advanced pedagogical experience.

13. The term "pedagogy" comes from

a) Latin "child" + "educate",

b) Greek "child" + "teach",

C) Greek "child" + "lead".

14. The subject of pedagogy is

A) the process of formation and development of the personality in the course of its training and education,

b) the formation of didactic tools for teaching the child,

c) the legal framework that ensures the continuous education of the child.

15. Education is

A) a purposeful process of education and training,

b) the process of interaction between the teacher and the student,

c) the system of state and municipal institutions.

16. Pedagogy as a science

a) formed in Ancient Greece in the writings of Aristotle,

b) formed in the 20th century after the appearance of Vygotsky’s works,

C) was formed in the 17th century in the works of Comenius.

17. Didactics is a section of pedagogy,

a) studying the basics of personality formation in the educational process,

B) considering issues of education,

c) studying questions of education.

18. State standards in pedagogy is

A) official, documented requirements for the content of the educational process and its provision,

b) the maximum performance that all students should strive for,

c) socially approved results of educational activities.

19. The levels of school education in the Russian Federation include

a) primary, secondary and senior education,

B) primary general, basic general and complete general education,

c) preschool, school and higher education.

20. Self-education is

A) the process of acquiring knowledge and developing skills initiated by a student outside the education system at any age,

b) teaching students at home with passing exams at an educational institution,

c) preparation for the final certification outside the educational institution.

Test number 21. Pedagogical experiment -

a) spontaneous change in the pedagogical process, motivated by changes in pedagogical conditions,

b) registration of facts in the process of education and upbringing,

C) controlled transformation of the pedagogical process to substantiate a scientific hypothesis.

22. To methods pedagogical research relate

a) censure and moral condemnation,

b) encouragement and rewarding,

C) the study of pedagogical practice.

23. The system-activity approach in pedagogy is associated with names

A) Vygotsky, Elkonin, Davydov,

b) Comenius, Bacon,

c) Winter, Kraevsky, Lebedev.

24. The term "zone of proximal development" was proposed

A) Vygotsky

b) Zankov,

c) Elkonin.

25. Formative experiment in pedagogy

A) requires specially designed tasks to test the pedagogical hypothesis,

b) is carried out in secret from students without fail,

c) synonymous with natural experiment.

26. Ascertaining experiment in pedagogy

a) synonymous with formative,

b) is aimed at a mandatory change in pedagogical conditions,

C) is associated with measurements of the actual state of the elements of the educational process.

Test. 27. The first fundamental research on the age characteristics of preschool and younger children school age carried out

A) Piaget, Vygotsky,

b) Bacon, Comenius,

c) Montessori.

28. The theoretical foundations of developmental learning were developed

a) Galperin, Talyzina,

B) Blonsky, Vygotsky,

c) Elkonin, Davydov.

29. Game activity at primary school age

a) becomes the main

B) remains important, but auxiliary,

c) stops.

30. Personal communication becomes the leading activity

A) in adolescence

b) at primary school age,

c) at preschool age.

31. The principles of learning were first formulated by

a) Aristotle

B) Comenius,

c) Sukhomlinsky.

32. Translated from Greek, pedagogy means

A) "I'm taking the child",

b) "I teach the child",

c) "understand the child."

33. The system of pedagogical sciences includes

A) preschool pedagogy,

b) socionics,

c) developmental psychology.

34. The cognitive component of self-consciousness includes

a) self-education,

b) self-development,

C) knowledge of the individual about himself.

Test number 35

a) hierarchical relationships

B) value relationships,

c) subject-object relations.

36. The rule from easy to difficult refers to the principle

A) systematic and consistent,

b) logic,

c) reasoning and evidence.

37. The internal motivation of a person to a particular type of activity is

B) motive

c) reason.

38. A purposeful process of training and education in the interests of the individual is

A) education

b) development,