Psychological problem: essence, characteristics, types. The psychological essence of education, its criteria

Psychological diagnostics, see Psychodiagnostics.

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The article analyzes the essence of the psychological problem, its main characteristics, concepts related to psychological problems. An attempt is made to determine the types of psychological problems and build a model of the classification system of psychological problems based on their content. It is proposed to create a working group to develop a diagnostic system for psychological problems.

Keywords: psychological problem, psychological problems of personality, analysis of psychological problems, solution of psychological problems, classification of psychological problems.

The work of a practical psychologist can be conditionally divided into two main parts or stages - the diagnosis of a psychological problem and its solution. If numerous methodological systems and techniques have been created to solve psychological problems, then there are no special generally accepted approaches, diagnostic systems, such as DSM or ICD, for diagnosing psychological problems. Each specialist, on the basis of his own knowledge, experience and psychotherapeutic orientation, determines the client's problem himself. As a result, as practical work, and in the training of specialists, the process of orientation in psychological problems becomes subjective, intuitive, and if a specialist strictly follows a particular psychotherapeutic direction, then it becomes one-sided. In our opinion, the lack of a unified theory and classification system of psychological problems, as well as criteria for their diagnosis, significantly complicates not only work, but also training. practical psychologists. The solution to this, in our opinion, fundamental problem practical psychology is possible only on a collective basis, but here we will try to outline the contours of the problem and our vision of the principles for its solution. First of all, let's try to define the concept of "psychological problem". AT psychological dictionaries, in the scientific and educational literature this concept is rarely defined and differentiated. We were able to find two definitions. Thus, according to T. D’ Zurilla and co-authors, “A problem (or a problem situation) ... is life situation or task (present or future) that requires a response for adaptive functioning, but the positive outcome of this response is not obvious or impossible due to the presence of one or more obstacles” (D'Zurilla et al., 2004, p.12-13) . A. Blaser and co-authors define a psychological problem as "...excessive requirements for the patient's adaptive capabilities" (Blazer et al., 1998, p. 55).

Various definitions of a psychological problem can also be found in the popular psychological literature. So, in the encyclopedia of practical psychology N.I. Kozlov, psychological problems are defined as "... internal problems that do not have a clear rational basis" (Kozlov, 2015, p. 637).

Our understanding of psychological problems in methodological terms is based on the so-called problem approach, according to which any process can be considered as a movement aimed at solving a specific problem. From this position, psychological, socio-psychological, pathopsychological processes, behavioral responses and the activity of the individual can be considered as a form of solving psychological problems. BUT joint work the psychologist and the client can be seen as a process aimed at diagnosing, understanding and solving the psychological problems of the individual. We define a psychological problem as an actualized psychological contradiction within a person or group, which manifests itself within the framework of the mental norm, but creates discomfort, tension, and hinders the normal development, functioning and adaptation of the person or group. Let's try to expand this definition. First, we consider the problem as a contradiction, since any obstacle, difficulty, conflict reflects a contradiction between opposing tendencies. We can say that any problem is based on a contradiction and any problem, including psychological, can be characterized through this basis. For example, fear can be characterized as a contradiction between the desire to live, or to maintain self-esteem, and a situation that threatens these desires. At the same time, one can speak of the presence of a psychological problem if the contradictions are relevant. The latter may exist in a latent form, potentially not bothering the subject, not perceived as a problem. Discomfort, tension, and generally negative emotions usually accompany actualized problems, although sometimes, for example, with intellectual problems, tension can have a positive connotation (for example, during creative work). In our opinion, psychological problems are a kind of barriers to adaptation, development and normal functioning of the individual. Features of overcoming these barriers determine the options for personality development (progressive, regressive, pathological development).

AT this definition we tried to differentiate between psychological (normal) and so-called "psychiatric" problems, i.e. mental disorders (in English literature, these concepts are usually treated as synonyms). In fact, mental disorders are also psychological problems, but within the pathology, not the norm. Consequently, two types of psychological problems can be distinguished - pathological problems (symptoms of diseases) resulting from mental disorders and the so-called "normal" problems, reflecting the contradictions of a normally functioning psyche. It should be noted that the line between these types of problems is very thin, difficult to distinguish, not stable and is often determined not by the problem itself, but by the characteristics of the person who has this problem, her attitude to this problem. At the same time, pathological problems very often arise as a result of deepening and sharpening of normal psychological problems, their inadequate solution. Classification mental disorders is known to be present in DSM and ICD systems. In the classification system of psychological problems, pathological problems, in our opinion, can also be represented as a separate subgroup in the section of psychological problems of the substructure of the psyche where they manifest themselves (this is, of course, a very debatable issue). For example, in the section on psychological problems of thinking, in a separate subgroup, one can present thinking disorders (for example, delirium, disorder of the associative process, etc.).

Let's try to present some characteristics of psychological problems that are important in practical work. First of all, this is the dynamics of psychological problems, i.e. the process of formation, development, actualization / de-actualization, exacerbation / weakening of problems in different periods of a person's life or under different circumstances. Another characteristic of psychological problems is the level of their awareness and critical attitude towards them. In practical work, a specialist often encounters a lack of awareness or denial of their own psychological problems. The position of explaining psychological problems is also important. Patients often explain psychological problems not by psychological, but by objective, independent circumstances. Here an important role is played by the so-called determinative system of personality, i.e. a system of ideas on the basis of which a person explains the causes of various phenomena, including his own problems. Based on the research of clients who applied to psychological services, we identified biological, socio-economic, mystical and psychological determination systems. These studies also showed that in order to understand and accept their own psychological problems and increase the effectiveness of psychotherapy, it is very important for the patient to switch to a psychological determination system.

Duration of existence, severity are also characteristics of psychological problems. There are chronic psychological problems that a person lives with long time and acute problems.

Psychological problems are also individual characteristics manifestations, i.e. different people perceive, evaluate and experience the same problem differently. At the same time, in practical work, a specialist usually encounters not one isolated psychological problem, but a system of interrelated, interdependent problems, and the effectiveness of work largely depends on systems approach to the solution of the problem, and not a separate problem of the individual. In this regard, we consider it important to introduce into practical psychology such a concept as “psychological problems of personality” or “system of psychological problems of personality”. Like any system, psychological problems also have a hierarchical structure, consisting of central, initial and derivative, or actual and secondary problems. To study the problems of personality means to systematize, to compile a hierarchy (for example, causal) of psychological problems.

Next important question, associated with the psychological problems of the individual, concerns strategies for their analysis. Each psychotherapeutic school and even each specialist has its own principles, approaches and traditions of studying psychological problems. The following main approaches can be distinguished: a) analysis of the mechanisms of manifestation of psychological problems; b) analysis of the origin and dynamics of problems; c) analysis of cause-and-effect relationships of problems; d) analysis of the phenomenal characteristics of psychological problems, etc.

The concept of “solution of a psychological problem” also needs clarification. In practical psychology, methods and techniques for solving psychological problems are usually described, but the solution of the problem itself, as a result psychological work rarely analyzed. Meanwhile, it is very important to understand not only the essence of the psychological problem, but also the essence of its solution. In this regard, when working with psychological problems (also in the training of practical psychologists), it is necessary to clarify: a) how do the patient and the psychologist imagine the process of solving the problem, to what extent do these ideas coincide with each other and are realistic? b) What are the patient's strategies for solving (coping strategies) of his psychological problems? c) What options, levels, types, forms, ways of solving psychological problems exist? d) What should be the sequence and time frame for solving problems? e) What will be the consequences of solving problems?

It is possible to single out various forms of solving psychological problems, such as: a) adequate / inadequate; b) everyday / professional; c) neurotic, psychotic, healthy; d) psychological, social, economic, biological, etc. It is possible to distinguish levels of problem solving: a) partial/full; b) solving the problem at the levels of causes, effects, etc. Options for solving a psychological problem can be: a) deactualization of the problem (for example, through its rethinking); b) elimination of factors contributing to the emergence of a problem or interfering with its solution, etc. Ways to solve psychological problems can be identified on the basis of those common strategies, which are used in practical psychology, for example: a) awareness; b) reflection/rethinking; c) suggestion/programming; d) catharsis; e) training; f) desensitization, etc.

Now let's move on to the issue of classification of psychological problems. In the literature on practical psychology, it is difficult to find systematic, holistic studies specifically devoted to psychological problems and their classification. In psychotherapy, sometimes psychological problems are classified on the basis of psychotherapeutic areas, for example, such expressions as “psychoanalytic problems” [McWilliams, 2001], “existential problems” [Grishina, 2011] can be found. Often there are such concepts as “behavioral problems” (usually, they mean such disorders as hyperactivity and attention deficit, destructive behavior, etc.), “ emotional problems(anxiety, depression). N. D. Linde classifies psychological problems on the basis of "... the difficulty of their solution and in terms of the depth of their rootedness in the personality" [Linde, 2001, p. 26]. The author distinguishes seven levels of psychological problems, for example, the “supernormal level”, “the level of neurosis”, “psychosis” [Linde, 2001, p. 27-30].

Based on many years of experience in psychotherapeutic work, we have developed a model of the classification system of psychological problems [Khudoyan, 2014], which we will try to present below.

Psychological problems can be grouped on the basis of their form and content. In terms of form, psychological problems can be classified according to different criteria. So, according to the criterion of awareness, one can distinguish conscious, poorly conscious and unconscious (usually, deep problems that determine external clearly perceived problems, about which the patient turns to a psychologist, are not recognized). It is possible to distinguish between causal (reflecting the causes of other problems) and consequential (resulting from other problems, for example, anxiety may be the result of an intrapersonal conflict) psychological problems.

In the literature, there is a division of psychological problems into external (for example, negative emotions) and deep (for example, intrapersonal conflicts)

By temporal characteristics, severity and significance for the subject, one can distinguish between old (for example, old grievances) and new, chronic (problems with which a person lives long time) and acute, actual and irrelevant psychological problems.

One can also distinguish between major and minor, complex and simple problems, overt/hidden, real and imagined, solvable/unsolvable, accepted and not accepted by the patient, problems presented by the patient and problems attributed to the patient by relatives or specialists, etc. Psychological problems can also be intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup and intergroup (the latter can be considered as socio-psychological problems).

Practical psychology most urgently needs to classify psychological problems on the basis of their content, to single out, group and describe the problems of different personality substructures. It is on this classification that a diagnostic system of psychological problems should be built. Naturally, the construction of such a classification system is possible only through the joint efforts of numerous specialists, but here we will try to present a hypothetical model for constructing such a system.

To classify psychological problems, it is first necessary to identify the areas of their manifestation. We have identified four such areas.

1. Mental sphere of personality.

2. Biological substructure of personality.

3. Personal development, her life path, present and future.

4. The system of relationships personality - environment.

Below we will schematically present the main groups of psychological problems in the selected areas of personality. At the same time, we want to note that both the identified areas and the groups of psychological problems included in these areas are relative, and the model itself does not claim to be complete and accurate.

Problems associated with the mental subsystem of personality

1. Problems of the I system - problems associated with self-consciousness, I-concept, attitude towards oneself, with a sense of I, with the integrity of I (inadequate I-concept, narcissism, inferiority complex, depersonalization, dysmorphophobia, split personality, etc.). Problems associated with substructures of the self (for example, weak ego, strong superego or id), with defense mechanisms (inadequate, immature defense mechanisms etc.). intrapersonal conflicts. Problems associated with introspection and reflection, with the awareness and verbalization of one's own experiences.
2. Problems with awareness and critical assessment of reality (disorientation in time, space, low level introspection, intrapunitiveness, etc.).
3. Problems related to needs - motivational sphere personality - loss of the meaning of life, decreased motivation, inadequate needs, frustration of needs, inadequate forms of meeting needs, etc.
4. Problems associated with the volitional sphere of the personality - weak will, abulia, problems with self-control, impulsiveness, underdevelopment volitional qualities personalities, etc.
5. Problems related to emotional sphere- increased anxiety, apathy, aggressiveness, depression, inadequate emotions, over-emotionality, emotional immaturity, emotional coldness, etc.
6. Problems associated with the cognitive sphere of the individual - problems and disorders of sensation (for example, poor vision, hearing, senestopathy, etc.), perception (for example, problems with the perception of time, speech, hallucinations, etc.), attention (for example, absent-mindedness), memory (eg, stress amnesia), thinking, and intelligence (eg, comprehension problems, delusional disorders, mental retardation)․ In this category, in our opinion, one can also include such problems as the cognitive dissonance, lack of information, etc.
7. Problems associated with speech - stuttering, speech disorders (aphasia, dysarthria, oligophasia, schizophasia, etc.), tachilalia, delayed speech development, dyslexia, dysgraphia, etc.
8. Problems associated with the sexual sphere of personality - frigidity, impotence , lack of sexual satisfaction, sexual perversion, problems related to gender identity, etc.
9. Behavioral problems - addictions, impulsive, irrational, inappropriate behavior, enuresis, tic disorders, hyperactivity, aggressive behavior, obsessions, deceit, sleep disorders, problems related to food, sexual, behavior, etc.
10. Problems related to temperament and character - character accentuations, psychopathy, sociopathy, negative traits character, etc.
11. Problems related to perception, reactions to stress and coping - inadequate reactions to stress and coping strategies, post-traumatic stress disorders, reduced stress tolerance, etc.
12. Problems of the spiritual, moral and religious spheres of the individual - guilt, moral decline, moral conflict, spiritual crisis, value conflict, fanaticism, problems associated with sects, etc.

Psychological problems associated with the biological subsystem of personality

1. Psychological problems associated with somatic diseases (for example, fear of death due to myocardial infarction, depression in cancer patients, emotional problems with hormonal disorders, etc.),
2. Psychological problems associated with normative stressful biological processes (menstruation, childbirth, menopause, etc.).
3. Psychological problems that contribute to the occurrence of somatic diseases (for example, alexithymia).
4. Somatized psychological problems (eg, somatized depression, conversion disorders).
5. Psychological problems associated with cosmetic surgery, organ transplants, surgical changes in appearance.
6. Psychological problems associated with bodily injuries and deformities, brain poisoning, etc.

Psychological problems associated with the development of personality, with its way of life, present and future

1. Problems associated with deviations of normative mental and social development (underdevelopment or delayed development of cognitive functions, emotional immaturity, etc.).
2. Problems associated with normative involutionary processes (normative changes in appearance, decreased sexual activity, etc.)
3. Problems associated with non-normative personality development (problems that arise in the process of personal growth, fall, degradation of personality, etc.).
4. Normative and non-normative crises of personality development, crises associated with normative life events (birth of a child, retirement, death of parents, etc.).
5. Problems associated with solving age-related developmental tasks (for example, with the assimilation of speech).
6. Problems related to professional orientation, career, professional development etc.
7. Specific problems of certain age periods ( teenage problems, problems of late age, etc.), etc.

Psychological problems associated with interpersonal, intergroup relationships and personal living space

1. Psychological problems associated with interpersonal relationships (interpersonal conflicts, rivalry, mutual hostility, love problems, chilling relationships, specific, problems caused by interruption interpersonal relationships, for example, the death of loved ones, the separation of couples, problems associated with the relationship of opposite sexes, friends, relatives, neighbors, etc.).
2. Intra-group psychological problems (problems between the individual and the group, problems between groupings within the group, alienation from the group, etc.)
3. Psychological problems associated with intergroup relationships (ethnic conflicts, rivalry between groups, etc.).
4. Psychological problems of individual spheres of a person's life (family, work, educational psychological problems, specific problems associated with certain specialties, for example, problems in sports, diplomacy, police, etc.).
5. Transgenerational problems (identifications with relatives that make life difficult for a person, anniversary syndrome, etc.).
6. Psychological problems associated with the living space of the individual - lack of housing, poor living conditions, psychological problems associated with the physical effects of the environment (heat, cold, radiation, lack of oxygen, etc.)

Concluding this article, we note that the proposed theoretical model and scheme of the classification system of psychological problems are only an attempt to raise the problem and outline our vision of the contours of its solution. In the future, in our opinion, it is necessary to create a working group of practical psychologists and researchers and develop a general theory and diagnostic system of psychological problems.

Abstract

The Psychological Problems: an Essence, Types, Characteristics

The essence of the psychological problems, their main characteristics, concepts related to psychological problems is analyzed in the article. An attempt to classify the psychological problems and to build a model of the classification system of psychological problems on the basis of their content is made. The author suggested establishing a working group for the elaboration of a diagnostic system of psychological problems.

keywords: psychological, psychological problematic of personality, analysis of psychological problems, solution of problem psychological problems classification of psychological problems.

Literature:

1. Blaser A., ​​Heim E., Ringer H., Tommen M. Problem-oriented psychotherapy: an integrative approach: transl. with him. M.: "Class", 1998. Grishina N.V. Existential problems of a person as a life challenge. // Sociology. 2011. No. 4. S. 109-116.
2. Kozlov N.I. Psychologos. Encyclopedia of practical psychology. M.: Ed. Eksmo, 2015.
3. Linde N.D. Fundamentals of modern psychotherapy: textbook. allowance for students. higher textbook establishments. M.: Publishing Center "Academy". 2002.
4. McWilliams N. Psychoanalytic Diagnosis: Understanding Personality Structure in the Clinical Process. M.: Independent firm "Class", 2001.
5. Khudoyan S.S. On methodological issues of research and teaching of psychological problems of personality // Problems of Pedagogy and Psychology, 2014, No. 3, p. 99-104.
6. D'Zurilla, T. J., Nezu, A. M., & Maydeu-Olivares, A. (2004). Social problem solving: theory and assessment. In E. C. Chang, T. J. D'Zurilla, & L. J. Sanna (Eds.). Social problem solving: Theory, research, and training. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 11-27.
7. Khudoyan S.S. The Effectiveness of Medical Suggestion in Active Conscious State. // The 12th European Congress of Psychology. Istanbul, 2011, 4-8 July. P. 238.

Psychology of people in relations with the system of law (subject legal psychology) is the reality represented in their peculiar psychology, in the form of a special psychological functional subsystem of their psyche, reflecting the system of law and regulating relationships with it, which, like reality, they call legal psychology of people. Adequate scientific ideas about this psychology, the model of the psychology of people in the legal system is developing special branch scientific knowledge, located at the intersection of legal and psychological sciences. It is obvious that this knowledge will be adequate to reality if they are worn legal-psychological character.

The world of mental phenomena is primarily divided into the world of individual psychological phenomena and socio-psychological, group, closely related to each other, but still qualitatively unique.

Individual psychological phenomena classified according to different bases.

1) According to their essence and representation to our perception, mental phenomena are divided into psychological facts, psychological laws and psychological mechanisms.

Psychological facts - relatively superficial, observable (including fixed with the help of psychological techniques) psychological phenomena - manifestations of the existence and action of the psyche. The ability to notice psychological phenomena, to explain, to understand what they testify to, what is hidden behind them, is necessary for a professional lawyer.

Psychological patterns - objectively existing causal relationships of psychological phenomena and their conditions. The observed psychological facts cannot be understood, let alone influenced them, without understanding the patterns associated with them. In the psyche, regularities are probabilistic in nature. Therefore, studying, evaluating and taking them into account, it is more correct to reason by type: “as a rule”, “most often”, etc.

Psychological mechanisms - psychological transformations, through which the action of laws is performed and transitions from cause to effect occur. Psychological facts and regularities are always conditioned by such mechanisms. For example, the knowledge of a legal norm and the belief in the need to follow it are connected, but the transition from one to the other is mediated by psychological mechanisms that will “work” if we know them and know how to put them into action.

2) According to the form of existence, all psychological phenomena are divided into mental processes, mental states and mental formations (properties, stereotypes).

mental processes - changes at the level of the psyche: this is everything that arises, develops, dies away, turns into something else. Thus, testimonies are a product of the processes of perception of an event, its understanding, memorization, preservation and reproduction. Without understanding the mental processes, it is difficult to understand anything in the human psyche, and without causing the necessary processes, it is impossible to change something in it. Any impact - the impact of the rule of law, preventive, managerial and other - is able to change something in a person and his behavior, only by causing the necessary mental processes for this.

mental states- integral features of the totality of mental processes occurring in a person at a given moment or over a certain period of time. States of excitement, anxiety, fear, euphoria, carelessness, vigilance, etc., experienced by a lawyer or a person in front of him, significantly affect their behavior, perception of the environment, etc. The result of the impact on a citizen largely depends on his mental state, on the ability of a lawyer to change an unfavorable state to the right one.

Psychic formations(properties, stereotypes) - entrenched in the human psyche (i.e. tending to repetition, facilitated reproduction and flow) mental phenomena.

3) A number of psychological phenomena stand out in terms of qualitative and meaningful features.

Motivational phenomena perform in mental activity motivating function and determine the selectivity of the relationship and activity of a lawyer, citizen, offender to the environment, to current events, problems, opportunities, future, etc. Needs, motives, goals, plans, aspirations, psychological attitudes, interests, beliefs, views - the most important of them and dominating among other psychological factors, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche of each person, which are of decisive importance in his legally significant intentions, actions, lifestyle, etc.,

cognitive mental processes, states and formations characterize intellectual activity and the corresponding capabilities of a person. They are responsible for what and how, in particular, is perceived and understood by him in legal and psychological reality, what picture of the world and society is formed and functions in his mind. These include: sensations, perceptions, attention, memory, representations, imagination, thinking and speech.

AT emotional mental phenomena, a person experiences and expresses his attitude to the environment, to legal reality, the rule of law, lawful behavior and offenses, law enforcement agencies, etc. Feelings and emotions are the main varieties of these phenomena that strongly affect life, actions, relationships and the development of oneself person. Positive emotions affect attractively in relation to their object or subject, and negative ones - repulsively, which (depending on the specific case and its content characteristics) positively or negatively affects the person, her behavior and the results she achieves. No issues of strengthening the rule of law can be thoroughly resolved without solving the problem of human emotions and feelings. This has to be emphasized because it is emotions and feelings that are most often neglected in solving creative legal problems.

Volitional mental phenomena provide the mobilization of the forces and capabilities of a person when faced with difficulties. They are expressed in volitional effort, tension, perseverance, perseverance, self-control, etc.

Psychomotor phenomena are included in the regulation of the movements of the body, arms, legs of a person and are expressed in the “muscular feeling” (kinesthetic sensations), the “feeling of the body”, motor memory, the processes of visual-muscular coordination that regulate the movements of their mental images, etc. They are actively involved in the formation motor skills in the training of law enforcement specialists.

4) According to the level of reflection, the phenomena of consciousness and the unconscious are distinguished (sometimes some authors add to them the subconscious).

Consciousness includes the entire set of mental phenomena that determine a meaningful attitude of a person to the world with an understanding of its essential properties, patterns and what is happening in it.

An important element of consciousness - self-awareness , meaningfulness of one's own existence in the objective world, one's needs, oneself (the image of one's "I"). Subconscious - a set of phenomena of the psyche that are not realized at some time, but can be realized. The subconscious mind is still little taken into account in legal activities.

The listed psychological phenomena always appear in a complex, in the form of a holistic, systemic mental activity of each and every person. At any moment, it takes place in the aggregate of motivational, cognitive, emotional and other mental processes mediated by human properties and laws, under the action of various mechanisms, against the background of certain mental states. The depth and quality of lawful or infringing behavior is the resultant product of all this complex activity and the degree of its legal optimality.

5) According to the prevailing determinism of the characteristics of mental phenomena, they differ: personal socio-psychological, proper psychological and psychophysiological.

Personal socio-psychological phenomena are predominantly social, i.e. social factors - the social environment: people, social conditions, events and processes, group socio-psychological factors. They prevail in the most important properties (orientation, character) and personality traits ( social needs, attitude to work and other people, worldview, sense of duty, legal obedience, moral upbringing, exactingness towards oneself, etc.), her habits, mental states, processes and are manifested especially in motivation, norms of behavior, actions, activities, relationships, etc. They are constantly manifested in the mental activity of a person, play an important role in it and are characterized by meaningful, qualitative characteristics. It is important that they are highly susceptible to socio-psychological influences from other people and groups.

O proper psychological phenomena can only be spoken of in an effort to single out in the psyche those of them that are approximately equally conditioned both socio-psychologically and psycho-physiologically and at the same time their own characteristics, connections and dependencies predominate in them. Most often, these include the majority of cognitive qualities (thinking, speech, memory, ideas, attention, perceptions), states, processes, a significant part of abilities, knowledge, skills, etc.

Psychophysiological phenomena have clear dependencies on the part of physiology, primarily the central nervous system. Socio-psychological influences are represented least of all in them. These include, first of all, those that are traditionally combined in a person’s temperament (sensitivity, balance, anxiety, risk tolerance, mobility, emotionality, etc.).

The subject of psychology (and legal psychology) includes and group psychology.

The main groups of socio-psychological phenomena are:

massive: public, collective, group goals, interests, requests, motives, opinions, norms of behavior, customs and traditions, moods, etc.;

relationship: intergroup, interpersonal, personal-group;

personal socio-psychological.

Being the property of the individual psyche, they nevertheless express the representation, “life” in it of the influences of the first two groups of socio-psychological phenomena (a person thinks, experiences, relates, strives, often does as they think, experience, etc. the people around him).

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Psychological essence of thinking.

Psychology, unlike other sciences, studies the thinking of a particular person in his real life and activities. The psychological study of the nature of thinking proceeds from the distinction between the sensible and rational cognition difference between thinking and perception. The latter reflects the world in images, the objects of the world appear in perception from the side of their external, sensually reliable properties. In perception, things, phenomena and properties are given in their individual manifestations, which are “connected, but not connected”. But for the orientation of a person in the natural and social world, only sensory perception is not enough, because:

Firstly, the essence of objects and phenomena does not directly coincide with their external appearance, accessible to perception.

Secondly, the complex phenomena of natural and social peace inaccessible to perception, they are not expressed in visual properties.

Thirdly, perception is limited to the reflection of objects and phenomena at the moment of their direct impact on the human senses. But with the help of perception it is impossible to know the past (which has already happened) and to foresee the future (which is not yet).

Thus, thinking begins where sensory cognition is no longer sufficient or even powerless. Thinking continues and develops the cognitive work of sensations, perceptions and ideas, going far beyond their limits. We can easily understand, for example, that an interplanetary ship moving at a speed of 50,000 kilometers per second will move to a distant star six times slower than a beam of light, while directly perceive or imagine the difference in the speed of bodies moving at a speed of 300,000 kilometers per second and 50,000 kilometers per second, we are not able to. In the real cognitive activity of each person, sensory cognition and thinking continuously pass one into the other and mutually condition each other.

Thinking reveals what is not directly given in perception, it reflects the world in its essential connections and relationships, in its diverse mediations. The main task of thinking is to identify essential, necessary connections based on real dependencies, separating them from random coincidences in time and space.

In the process of thinking, a transition is made from the accidental to the necessary, from the individual to the general. Significant connections with necessity are common under manifold changes in unimportant circumstances. Therefore, thinking is defined as a generalized reflection of reality. All thinking takes place in generalizations. “Thinking,” S.L. Rubinshtein emphasized, “is the movement of thought, revealing the connection that leads from the individual to the general and from the general to the individual.”

In the process of thinking, the subject uses various kinds of means developed by mankind in order to penetrate into the essential connections and relations of the objective and social world: practical actions, images and ideas, models, schemes, symbols, signs, language. Reliance on cultural means, tools of knowledge characterizes such a feature of thinking as its mediation.

Traditional definitions thinking, which can be found in most textbooks on psychology, usually fix its two features: generalization and mediation. Thinking is a process of generalized and mediated reflection of reality in its essential connections and relations.

Thinking is a process cognitive activity, in which the subject operates with various types of generalizations, including images, concepts and categories.

The appearance of speech in the process of human evolution fundamentally changed the functions of the brain. The world of inner experiences and intentions has acquired a qualitatively new apparatus for encoding information with the help of abstract symbols. This not only made it possible to transfer information from person to person, but also made the process of thinking qualitatively different. We better realize, understand a thought when we dress it in a linguistic form. Outside of language, we experience vague urges that can only be expressed through gestures and facial expressions. The word acts not only as a means of expressing thought: it rebuilds the thinking and intellectual functions of a person, since the thought itself is accomplished and formed with the help of the word.

The essence of thinking is in performing some cognitive operations with images in the internal picture of the world. These operations allow you to build and complete the changing model of the world. Thanks to the word, the picture of the world becomes more perfect, differentiated, on the one hand, and more generalized, on the other. Joining the direct image of the object, the word highlights its essential elementary or complex features that are directly inaccessible to the subject. The word translates the subjective meaning of the image into a system of meanings, which makes it more understandable both to the subject himself and to others around him.