The position of an individual in a group as a member. Interpersonal relationships in a team

Group psychology

1.3.4 The position of the individual in the group as a member

1.3.4.1 Status

Another part of the conceptual scheme that is used in group studies concerns the position of the individual in the group as a member. The first of the concepts used here is the concept of "status" or "position", denoting the place of the individual in the system of group life. The terms “status” and “position” are often used as synonyms, although for a number of authors the concept of “position” has a slightly different meaning [Bozhovich L.I. Personality and its formation in childhood. M., 1967 - S. 76]. The concept of “status” finds the widest application in describing the structure of interpersonal relations, for which the sociometric technique is most suitable. But the designation of the individual's status in the group thus obtained is by no means satisfactory.

First, because the place of an individual in a group is not determined only by his sociometric status; it is important not only to what extent the individual as a member of the group enjoys the affection of other members of the group, but also how he is perceived in the structure of the activity relations of the group. This question cannot be answered using sociometric methods. Secondly, status is always a certain unity of the characteristics objectively inherent in the individual, which determine his place in the group, and his subjective perception by other members of the group. In the sociometric methodology, there is an attempt to take into account these two components of the status (communicative and gnostic), but at the same time only the components of emotional relations (those that the individual has for other members of the group, and those that others have for him) are assumed. The objective characteristics of the status simply do not figure in this case. And thirdly, when characterizing the status of an individual in a group, it is necessary to take into account the relations of a wider social system into which this group included, -- the "status" of the group itself. This circumstance is not indifferent to the specific position of a member of the group. But this third sign is also not taken into account in any way when determining the status of the sociometric method. The question of developing an adequate methodological technique for determining the status of an individual in a group can be resolved only with the simultaneous theoretical development of this concept.

Thus, whether we like it or not, we put the people around us into status categories, and there is a fairly clear idea among the members of the group who is above, who is in the middle, and who is the outsider.

Status sources. Status is given to an individual by a group, and in this sense is a group value. Any social or individual characteristic can act as a status characteristic: external attractiveness or ugliness (for example, scars on the face), youth and old age, tall stature or miniature, etc. Among sumo wrestlers, for example, huge weight is valued. He has an undoubted status value in this professional group. At the same time, among professional jockeys, on the contrary, miniaturization is such a value. Speaking English with a Russian accent has a different status value in London and in Tashkent. What an individual owns, knows or can do may or may not have a status value. It all depends on the system of group coordinates on the basis of which the assessment is made.

Organizations and groups provide individuals with status attributes in a variety of ways. If the group occupies a high place in the wider social system, membership in it itself serves as a status distinction.

A prestigious profession, a position in the organizational hierarchy, wage, organizational benefits, etc. In addition, the status can be personal characteristics perceived by the organization or group as valuable. It can be education, gender, nationality, religiosity, sociability, experience or competence.

Status functions. Status symbols perform a number of functions in an organization. They serve to reward, motivate, and facilitate communication. Status symbols act as rewards for achievement gained through hard work or great ability. They also act as motivating factors, causing individuals to work hard for a possible promotion. But the greatest value of status to an organization is that it is a means of facilitating communication. Status determines what an individual's position is in relation to others within the organization, what his rank is to outsiders, who starts the communication, to whom it is addressed, how responsibility is distributed, etc. Status symbols give communication greater certainty.

Status matching. Each status can be compared with others on one or another basis, correlated with the dominant value system and, ultimately, must be tied to the contribution of each individual to the group or organizational activity. The correspondence of status symbols to the individual's real merits to the group is an important factor in group processes.

When members of a group encounter a status inconsistency, they exhibit behavior to correct it. Employees expect rewards in proportion to the effort they put in. If two nurses apply for the position of chief nurse of the clinic, it is obvious that the more experienced and qualified one has more grounds for this promotion. And if this happens, both the group and the other applicant for the position will perceive this as a status equilibrium. If preference is given to a less worthy candidate, based on some non-group criteria (for example, someone's patronage), this situation will lead to a status imbalance in the group and will inevitably affect its effectiveness.

Despite the fact that groups as a whole easily agree on status criteria, conflict situations often arise. Ego occurs, for example, when individuals move into groups with different status criteria, or when groups are formed from individuals with heterogeneous experiences.

1.3.4.2 Roles

Another structural characteristic of a group is the roles of individuals in the group. Usually, a role is defined as a dynamic aspect of status, which is revealed through a list of those real functions that are assigned to the personality by a group, content. group activity. If we take such a group as the family, then by its example we can show the relationship between status, or position, and role. In a family, different status characteristics exist for each of its members: there is a position (status) of mother, father, eldest daughter, younger son, etc. If we now describe the set of functions that are “prescribed” by the group of each position, then we get a description of the role of mother, father, eldest daughter, youngest son, etc. It is impossible to represent the role as something unchanging: its dynamism lies in the fact that, while maintaining the status, the set of functions corresponding to it can vary greatly in different groups of the same type, and most importantly, in the course of development of both the group itself and the wider social structure into which it's on. An example with a family vividly illustrates this pattern: the change in the role of spouses in the course of the historical development of the family is a hot topic of modern social psychological research.

Understanding role behavior it would be greatly simplified if the same roles were played constantly, without change. Unfortunately, things are much more complicated: people are required to play a whole range of roles, often extremely contradictory, and one of the challenges in understanding human behavior is to determine the role that a person plays at the moment. For example, an army officer is required to perform a number of roles in his service: command his unit, carry out combat duty, check the combat readiness of soldiers and sergeants, take care of their well-being and health. Outside of the service, he plays a number of other roles - husband, father, friend, member of the sports club or local hunting society.

Many of these roles are quite compatible, others create conflict. For example, caring for soldiers and family are quite comparable. But often there are quite different situations. Imagine that an officer receives a promotion that is accompanied by a change in duty station: instead of big city he and his family must move to a remote garrison, where the wife is unlikely to be able to find work, and the children will not be able to get a good education. In this case, the role of an executive officer comes into conflict with the role of a caring father who cares about the well-being of his family.

People are voluntarily or involuntarily forced to play a variety of roles, and their behavior largely depends on what role they play. And the behavior of an officer on the parade ground will be very different from his behavior on the tennis court. Even while maintaining the same status, the set of functions corresponding to it can differ greatly not only in different groups, but also in the course of the development of the group itself. Returning to our example of the family, one cannot fail to note the dramatic changes that family roles have undergone in recent history.

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The first of the concepts used in this context is the concept of "status" or "position", denoting the place of the individual in the system of group life. The terms "status" and "position" are often used as synonyms, although a number of authors have a slightly different meaning of the concept of "position". The status of an individual in a group is a real socio-psychological characteristic of his position in the system of intra-group relations, the degree of real authority for other participants.

The concept of “status” finds the widest application in describing the structure of interpersonal relations, for which the sociometric technique is most suitable.

The internal setting of a person in the system of intra-group relations is a personal, subjective perception of his own status, how he assesses his real situation. The actual status and its perception by a person may not coincide.

Another characteristic of an individual in a group is the "role". Usually, a role is defined as a dynamic aspect of status, which is revealed through a list of those real functions that are assigned to the individual by the group, the content of group activity. The role taken on largely determines the perception and evaluation of a person in the system of intragroup relations.

There are many classifications and names of group roles. The set of role functions is determined by the type of group and its structure. So, for example, in a psycho-correctional group, many roles have bright names: “virtuous moralist”, “complainer”, “keeper of time”, “guardian of democracy”, “outsider”. The set of roles in a group also depends on the tasks it performs. The roles associated with group support are called: "encouraging", "harmonizing", "compromising", "guarding and fulfilling", "setting standards", "passive following".

In the most general form, the roles associated with problem solving and the roles associated with providing support to other members of the group are presented in Table 3.

There are a lot of typologies of group roles; as a rule, they are based on relations of power - subordination or preference - rejection. The most vivid idea of ​​the role division in the group is given by the analysis of such groups where there is a rigid hierarchy, lack of resources and problems with their distribution. Using the Greek alphabet, the status-role distribution in such a group is usually defined by the following set of roles:

beta - the second person in the group with the corresponding right to benefits, less energetic, but often more intelligent than alpha; usually is the guardian of group norms and rules;

gamma-1 - approximate, support, associates, alpha team;

gamma-2 - usually a large subgroup of inert, submissive group members who become victims of manipulation by upper-level representatives;

gamma-3 - opposition, a subgroup of those dissatisfied with their status, but forced to obey; in relation to them, the policy of “carrot or stick” is applied, and the “carrot” can be an introduction to the number of close associates (co-optation), and the “stick” can be the restriction of rights, remuneration, contentment, expulsion from the group, and up to physical reprisal;

gamma-4 - a jester who allows himself (with the permission of the leader) critical remarks, maintaining the appearance of democracy, freedom of speech, etc.; by status it can be at the level from gamma-1 to gamma-3;

omega - "scapegoat" - a person who takes on group aggression. Such a role is necessary for the group to unite, demonstrate unity, feel the feeling of “we” as opposed to the omega, which is precisely “not us”. If the person in the omega position disagrees with their status and leaves the group, the group finds another person to fill that role.

Quite strongly, such a group division is also manifested in groups of socially immature personalities - children, criminals.

An important component of the characteristics of the individual's position in the group is the system of "group expectations". This term denotes the simple fact that each member of the group not only performs its functions in it, but is also necessarily perceived, evaluated by others. In particular, this refers to the fact that each position, as well as each role, is expected to perform certain functions. The group, through a system of expected patterns of behavior corresponding to each role, in a certain way controls the activities of its members. In some cases, there may be a discrepancy between the expectations that the group has regarding any of its members, and his real behavior, the real way he performs his role. To optimize control by group members, group norms and group sanctions are used.




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Information » The relationship between the properties of temperament and interpersonal relationships in a group of younger students » Theoretical analysis of the problem of the relationship of temperament and interpersonal relationships in a group. Current state problems of studying interpersonal relations in a group
Theoretical analysis of the problem of the relationship between temperament and interpersonal relationships in a group. The current state of the problem of studying interpersonal relations in a group
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The position of a person in a group depends on his character, behavior, abilities and skills. So, popularity is associated with such personality traits as sociability, sympathy, calmness and goodwill, a broad outlook and a desire to help. Unpopularity is caused by selfishness, deceit, arrogance, the surface of knowledge in the professional field, secrecy, poor communication skills.
The position of a person in a group depends not only on his qualities, but also on how they are evaluated in a given team. What may be important and valuable in one group may have the opposite value in another. So, in one class a cult of knowledge may develop, in another - a cult of mischief. Those behaviors that are recognized as valuable in the group can change personality traits person in a positive or negative direction.
In addition, in each group there is a prevailing emotional atmosphere, on which the well-being of a person and his actions largely depend. The atmosphere can be sympathetic or hateful, gloomy, indifferent, creative, boring, etc. depending on the existing interpersonal relationships.
The position of a person, especially a person school age, in a group, a team affects his behavior, psychological well-being, the development of moral, intellectual, volitional qualities.
According to experimental data, 3-4 people are usually the most popular in a group, about the same number of unpopular or isolated, outcast people. In accordance with this, leaders, or "stars", who actively communicate, or "sociable", isolated and rejected members of the group, are conditionally distinguished.
The position of the child in the interpersonal relations of the group can be determined by observation, which will show who is constantly active, contributes to the overall activity, and who remains aloof. However, observation will not help to clarify the relationship between all members of the group and determine the position of each in the popularity series. In addition to observation, various kinds of conversations and experiments are used in the study of this issue. For a more accurate study of the situation, such psychological procedures are used, which are called sociometry. The measurement consists in summing up the opinions and ratings of all members of the group.
One of the sociometric methods is the selection method proposed by the American psychologist J. Moreno. This method allows you to determine the real place of a person in business and personal relationships, to establish the degree of popularity of members of a team, group, to identify the existence of friendly groups, as well as the reasons for their formation and collapse. The selection method is used when the members of the group, the collective know each other. They answer questions about desired joint activities or other activities with group members. The questions asked are called selection criteria, which can be strong or weak. For example, the question “who would you like to work with?” - a strong criterion, and the question "who would you invite on an excursion?" - weak. There may be a negative choice - the answer to the question, "who would you not want to sit on the same desk with?". Thus, the choice can be mutual - negative or positive and unanswered.

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Human activity and its relationship with temperament
Activity - a specific human form of relation to the world around, the content of which is its expedient change in the interests of people; condition for the existence of society.

Man cannot live in complete solitude.

Social group - association of people in order to meet the needs of individuals in the implementation of joint actions. People are united according to various criteria: belonging to a nation (a historical and cultural community of people united by language, common features of a psychological make-up), profession, age group, citizenship, ideology, religion, and common interests. A group can be defined as an association of people according to a certain attribute. The groups have certain norms(rules of conduct) and values, deviation from which is punishable by sanctions (from condemnation to boycott and exclusion from the group).

All groups of people can be divided into large(nations, classes) and small(family, group of friends). The difference between them is not only quantitative (according to various estimates small group includes 7-20 people), but also qualitative (a feature of a small group is the possibility of direct contacts between all members of the group).

A small group is a small association of people whose members have a common goal and are in direct personal contact with each other. Quantitative composition: from 2 to 40 people.

small group characterize: the presence of a common goal, Team work, personal (direct) interaction of group members, a certain emotional background, duration of existence, voluntary nature, the presence of mutual expectations.

Small groups are:

Conditional (members of the group do not have constant contacts with each other);

Real (members of the group have constant contacts with each other);

Natural (folding on their own).

Natural groups are divided into:

Formal - groups that are created and exist only within the framework of officially recognized organizations;

Informal - groups that arise and exist on the basis of the personal interests of their members and operate outside of official organizations.

All groups can be highly developed and underdeveloped.

The group exerts a certain pressure on the individual. According to the method of reaction to such pressure, possible behavior patterns: conformism or opportunism (a person changing his behavior in order to outwardly meet the requirements of other people with internal disagreement), suggestibility (a person accepts a line of behavior), active consent (consciously defending the interests of the group), nonconformity (disagreement with the majority, defending one's own interests).

Groups can be primary or secondary.

Primary groups- each member of such a group sees other members as personalities and individuals (family, friendly company). Here a personality is usually formed, everyone finds an intimate environment, sympathies and opportunities for the realization of personal interests.

Secondary groups- social contacts in them are impersonal, one-sided (master - brigade, coach - team). Members find an effective mechanism to achieve their own goals, but often at the cost of losing the intimacy and warmth of the relationship.

Religion, atheism and freedom of conscience.

Religion is the worldview and behavior of an individual, group, community, which is determined by belief in the existence of the supernatural.

Typology of religions:

1) Historical types:

a) Archaic (ancient) religions:

Totemism - belief in animals and plants (totem) with supernatural powers.

Fetishism is the worship of a fetish, an inanimate object endowed with supernatural powers. In the future, the properties attributed to the object became, as if “separated” from it, independent entities - “spirits”.

Animism is the belief in ghosts and spirits that inhabit the world along with people.

b) Modern religions

Theistic - belief in gods (Christianity, Judaism, Islam)

Ethical - belief in ethical ideals of connection with the Universe (Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism)

2) By the number of gods:

Polytheistic - belief in multiple gods

Monotheistic - belief in one single god.

3) According to the degree of distribution on the planet:

World - Buddhism, Christianity, Islam

Local (national) - Judaism, Confucianism, Shintoism.

Atheism is a system of views that rejects religious ideas (belief in God, in the immortality of the soul, in the resurrection from the dead, etc.). As a system of views, atheism is not limited to the historical, philosophical, natural-science criticism of religion. Atheism explains the causes of origin, the sources of faith in people, studies the social nature of religion. Atheism should be distinguished from other types of criticism of religion (anti-clericalism, freethinking, etc.). These are historically diverse forms of the denial of religious ideas and worship and the assertion of the inherent value of the existence of the world and man. Modern atheism views religion as an illusory consciousness.

One of the ways to overcome religious contradictions is the recognition and observance of freedom of conscience and religion.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Article 18 proclaims: “Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion: this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief and freedom to manifest his religion or belief…”

According to the Constitution the Russian Federation is a secular state. No religion can be established as a state or obligatory one. Religious associations are separated from the state and are equal before the law. Article 28 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation states: “Everyone is guaranteed freedom of conscience, freedom of religion, including the right to profess any religion or not to profess any, freely choose, have and disseminate religious and other beliefs and act in accordance with them.”

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1. Society and its types. Main areas public life.

Society-in broad sense- part of the material world, inextricably linked with nature and including the ways of interaction between people and the forms of their association

In a narrow sense - a set of people endowed with will and consciousness, carrying out actions and deeds under the influence of certain interests, motives, moods. (e.g. book society, etc.)

The concept of "society" is ambiguous. In historical science there are concepts - "primitive society", "medieval society", "Russian society", meaning a certain stage in the historical development of mankind or a specific country.

Society is usually understood as:

certain stage human history(primitive society, medieval, etc.);

people united common goals and interests (the society of the Decembrists, the society of book lovers);

Population of a country, state, region (European society, Russian society);

All mankind (human society).

Society functions:

Production of vital goods;

Systematization of production;

Human reproduction and socialization;

Distribution of labor results;

Ensuring the legality of the administrative activities of the state;

Structuring the political system;

Formation of ideology;

Historical transmission of culture and spiritual values

Human society includes a number of areas - spheres of public life:

- economic - relations between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material and non-material goods, services and information;

- social- interaction of large social groups, classes, strata, demographic groups;

- political - activities of state organizations, parties and movements related to the conquest, retention and exercise of power;

- spiritual - morality, religion, science, education, art, their impact on people's lives.

Under public relations refers to the diverse connections that arise between people in the process of economic, social, political, cultural life and activities. There are relations in the sphere of material production, in spiritual life.

The manifestation of the spheres of society:

a) Political and legal sphere:

Ratification of an international treaty

Introduction of amendments to the law

Holding parliamentary elections

b) Economic sphere:

Growth in the number of joint-stock enterprises

Increasing the money supply in the country

Decreased production of goods

Introduction of a new tax

Property Relations

in) Social sphere:

Demographic changes in the state

Society types:

1) pre-industrial (traditional) - the competition of man with nature

It is characterized by the predominant importance of agriculture, fishing, cattle breeding, mining and woodworking industries. About 2/3 of the able-bodied population is employed in these areas of economic activity. Manual labor dominates. The use of primitive technologies based on everyday experience passed down from generation to generation.

2) industrial - the competition of man with the transformed nature

It is characterized by the development of the production of consumer goods, which is carried out through the widespread use of various kinds of equipment. Economic activity is dominated by centralism, gigantism, uniformity in work and life, Mass culture, low level spiritual values, the oppression of people, the destruction of nature. The time of brilliant craftsmen who could invent a loom, a steam engine, a telephone, an airplane, etc. without fundamental special knowledge. Monotonous assembly line work.

3) post-industrial - competition between people

It is characterized not only by the widespread use of the achievements of science and technology in all areas human activity but also the purposeful improvement of technology itself on the basis of the development of fundamental sciences. Without the application of the achievements of fundamental sciences, it would be impossible to create either an atomic reactor, or a laser, or a computer. Man is being replaced by automated systems. One person with the help of modern technology armed with a computer can produce the final product, and not in a standard (mass) version, but in an individual version in accordance with the consumer's order.

4) New information technologies, according to modern scientists, can lead to fundamental changes throughout our way of life, and their widespread use will mark the creation of a new type of society - the information society.

2. Global problems of mankind.

Global problems are a set of problems of mankind that confronted him in the second half of the 20th century, and on the solution of which the existence of civilization depends.

Main global problems:

a) overcoming ecological crisis and its consequences:

Depletion of natural resources

Environmental pollution

b) demographic problem (problem of world population growth)

c) the problem of narrowing the gap in the level of economic development between countries

G) the problem of preventing the threat of a third world (nuclear) war

e) fight against international terrorism, drug mafia and drug addiction

f) preventing the spread of AIDS

Global problems:

Originated in the second half of the 20th century

All global problems are interconnected

Cover all aspects of people's lives

Applies to all countries of the world without exception

Causes: exploitation of resources, arms race, low culture of people, population growth

Among the social consequences of the NTR is

Growing requirements for specialist training

Increasing the share of employees in the service sector

Increasing the duration of schooling
- the growth of education of the population

The most important characteristic of the individual's position in a social group is his role and status. Status- this is a fairly stable position within the framework of institutionalized interaction, it is determined by the place of the individual in the system of social division of labor, the social hierarchy, it can be formalized or informal, main and secondary, prescribed and achieved, born and acquired(education, qualification), social(belonging to a large social group) and personal(belonging to a small or primary social group). Social status is most important among strangers, personal - among familiar people. They may or may not coincide (an example of a mismatch: high status in the workforce, and low status in the family). The main status is the status characteristic of a given individual, according to which he is distinguished by others. It determines the lifestyle, the circle of acquaintances, the manner of behavior, etc. For the scientific intelligentsia, this is an academic degree; for managers, it is a position.
Only three social statuses are considered born in the strict sense of the word: gender, nationality, race (male, African, Russian, son, daughter, sister, brother, etc.). However, the concepts of biological sex and socially acquired have already appeared. People can choose their own nationality.
The assigned (prescribed, ascriptive) status is not reduced to innate, as it is socially acquired, but it can be very difficult to distinguish between them (mother-in-law, father-in-law, stepdaughter, stepson, Godfather and mother).
A person acquires the achieved status due to his own efforts or luck (husband, student, world champion, rock star, etc.). The more developed and open a society is, the more social structure cells calculated for achieved statuses.
But it is often very difficult to determine what type a particular status belongs to, in these cases they talk about mixed status(nobleman, academician, Olympic champion, etc.).
To status elements include: the adequacy of behavior, the implementation of certain rights and obligations, identification (psychological identification of oneself with one's status).
status set is the totality of all the statuses occupied by a given individual.
If the status is considered as a place in the hierarchy, it is called rank. Status rank can be high, medium or low.
Prestige- this is an assessment of a certain status in the social hierarchy, accepted and enshrined in public opinion.
social role It is customary to call the expected behavior of a person associated with his status. The role is the dynamic side of the status. It is a certain pattern of behavior, recognized as appropriate for people of a given status in a given society. A social role can be assigned to a person formally (for example, in a legislative act) or be informal. Each person has a whole set of social roles carried out by him in society ( role set). Their collection is called role system. Society seeks to subordinate the individual to his social role through the mechanisms of selection, prescription and control over the performance of the role. On the other hand, in order to form his personal identity, an individual needs society. self-identification called self-determination of the individual in the status-role system of society.

Family as a small social group

To small social groups include the family, the brigade, and big- ethnic groups, classes, strata. small group name a small number of people who know each other well and interact with each other. Its features include: a limited number of members (2-20), the stability of the composition, the presence of an internal structure, roles, etc. Initial forms small group - dyad(based on emotional attachment) and triad(already present social attitude, the notion of the majority). The triad is more stable. It has fewer feelings, but a better developed division of labor, which gives independence to individuals.
Family- this is a small group, a fundamental institution of society, giving it stability, the primary cell of society (as Aristotle, Hegel, Marx believed), the environment for raising children and shaping their personality. It is the beginning of the socialization of the individual, it contributes to the formation of a citizen. Thanks to family relations continuity of generations is ensured, culture is reproduced. The stronger the family, the more stable the society. With the destruction of family ties, society also decays.
The family performs the following functions: reproductive(continuation of the genus), educational, economic, recreational(mutual moral and material support) and communicative(communication). Members of a traditional family are connected by a common life, running a joint household, mutual assistance, moral and legal responsibility. In a normal family, it is always easier for a person to solve problems, both material and psychological, than being alone.
A family may be based on (1) consanguinity, (2) marriage, or (3) guardianship. Hegel believed that the family is primarily a moral union. In the life cycle of a family, several stages can be distinguished: the initial (from marriage to the birth of a child) - the stage of growth; mature(stage of resettlement of adult children or the birth of grandchildren); final for the older generation and marks the beginning of a new life cycle.
The family may be multigenerational(in which children, having created their own families, do not leave their parents) and two-generation (nuclear when children are separated from their parents, the process of "nuclear" fission takes place. The first type of family is characteristic of a traditional agrarian society, for rural life, it is patriarchal in nature, in which seniority and the head of the family are respected; the second is for modern society, urban life, where each member of the family has freedom and independence. However, the nuclear family is less stable, has fewer children and a higher divorce rate.
The basis for creating a new family is marriage as "a voluntary and equal union of a man and a woman, giving rise to personal and property rights and obligations for them and aimed at creating a family." The state, which cares about its stability and its future, should support the family in every possible way, especially help newlyweds and families with many children.

Race and racism

The social sphere can be represented by various forms of community in accordance with the measure of natural certainty:
1) natural history- gender, generation, race, etc. (entirely in nature);
2) ethnohistorical- clan, tribe, nationality, nation (a mixture of natural and social factors: there is a powerful influence of cultural factors, but nature is not yet inferior to its positions);
3) socio-historical- castes, estates, classes and strata (totally determined by socio-economic and cultural factors).
Race- This is a category of people with common biological traits, natural and climatically determined, transmitted from generation to generation. The origin and change of the physical type of a person is studied by anthropology (from the Greek "anthropos" - a person).
There are various race classifications. The most general identifies three main ones: Caucasoid(relatively fair skin and fluffy hair); Mongoloid(yellow or yellow-brown skin and narrow slit eyes); Negroid(dark or black skin and curly hair). This is the white, yellow and black races - in the mass consciousness. However, there are practically no pure races anymore, and the boundaries between them are rather arbitrary.
There are two points of view regarding the origin of races: monogenetic(she says that all races come from one common ancestor, and racial differences arose as a result of the long influence of various geographical zones, most scientists adhere to it) and polygenetic(races are considered as biologically different kinds).
Racism is untenable both from a strictly scientific, biological and social point of view, it is also unacceptable from a spiritual, moral and ethical point of view. Racial characteristics are not morphological in nature, but are superstructural, external and secondary in relation to common nature person. Morphological are, for example, the structure of the skeleton, muscles, brain, and external - skin color, eye shape, etc. The latter began to form during the Late Paleolithic (30-40 thousand years ago). Representatives of different races produce healthy offspring, which is impossible with species differences, and physical and psychological differences between races are not an obstacle to their social and spiritual development. They are not essential to the characterization of man as a social and spiritual being. Mental, social, spiritual development is the fruit of a long cultural and civilizational development, the result of upbringing and education, and not biological inheritance. Racism may be based on incorrectly interpreted biological data, while spiritually and morally it is absolutely impossible and unacceptable.

ethnic communities

Ethnic communities are territorial groups connected by consanguinity. The formation of ethnic groups is based on the family, clan, clan, which are sometimes called pre-ethnic communities. Their composition is limited, they are part of a larger whole and do not have an independent culture. Family - the smallest consanguineous group of people connected by a common origin (grandmother, grandfather, father, mother, children). Several families that have entered into a union (or an extended family) form genus(a group of blood relatives who trace themselves back to the same ancestor). Families unite in clans(a group of relatives bearing the name of an alleged ancestor) who retain common ownership of land, blood feuds and mutual responsibility. Several clans united to form a tribe.
Tribe ruled by a chief or tribal council, its numbers may reach many thousands. This type of ethnic organization is characteristic of the tribal system. Based on related tribes living in the neighborhood, having mutual language and similar customs arise tribe. Union of Tribes It is more of a political than an ethnic entity. Based on it, metaethnoi from ethnic groups that are related or close in terms of forms of management and language (ethnic associations of Hellenes, ancient Slavs, Iranians, Turks, etc.).
Together with the formation of a differentiated society, the tribes unite in communities, on the basis of which a new historical type of ethnos arises - nationality. Usually, closely related tribes are consolidated into a nationality, but it happens that non-related ethnic groups also occur. The decisive role in the transformation of tribalism into a nationality is played by the state. Nationality - this is an ethnic community, historically located between tribes and a nation, characteristic of a slave-owning and feudal society.
Archaic peoples arise in the IV-III millennium BC, along with the first civilizations. They already had borders, were more united. The Old Russian nationality, formed in the second half of the 1st millennium AD, also included non-Slavic ethnic groups (Finno-Ugric, Baltic, Turkic). Russian word the people reflects the process of its origin (the root "-genus" is supplemented by the expanding prefix "on-", which means "ever-increasing offspring").
The Roman Empire, having united many peoples (Etruscans, Gauls, Iberians, etc.), created a new one - "populus romanus". However, after its collapse, new European ethnic groups began to form, which was associated with the formation of new states - Italy, Spain, France, etc. The history of the birth of new peoples is a process of mixing and merging, which continues today. Since the 18th century immigrants from England, Holland and Germany began to recognize themselves as Americans. The majority of US residents have switched to English and consider themselves Americans, albeit with different origins. South Africa in the 19th century immigrants from Europe formed a people - Afrikaners or Boers (from the Dutch "peasants"). Their language is similar to Dutch. At the end of the 20th century, in the young states of Oceania, a process of convergence of small tribes and the formation of new peoples (New Guineans, etc.) took place.
Ethnos (from the Greek "group", tribe, people) is a historically emerged type of stable social group of people with a unique internal structure: language, customs, culture, forms of economic activity, etc. But in general, there is no clear definition of ethnos yet; biologists, geographers, and historians are looking for it. Ethnic communities include tribe, nationality and nation.
concept ethnos widely used L.N. Gumilyov (1912-1992). From his point of view, ethnos connects both social and natural aspects. It is both a sociocultural community and a form of internal differentiation of the homo sapience species, which depends primarily on the geographical conditions of life and forms of economic activity. "Ethnicity" is a universal sign of a person, because he necessarily belongs to some ethnic group.
Ethnogenesis is a local variant of intraspecific morphogenesis, due to a combination of historical and geographical factors. Gumilyov considered ethnogenesis through the concept of "place of development" - when the nature of the territory has a decisive influence on the spiritual warehouse and customs of the people. He also correlated the formation of ethnic groups with the concept passionarity. This concept takes central location in Gumilyov's theory of ethnogenesis 1 . The passionary impulse forms the starting point of ethnogenesis, which is associated with a mutation that occurs as a result of the influence of certain geographical factors. The natural life span of an ethnic group is 1200-1500 years.
The process of ethnogenesis is considered by Gumilyov from the standpoint of its energy nature, and the biochemical energy of the living matter of the biosphere is named as a source of historical creativity. Individual people differ, according to Gumilyov's theory, in the amount of biochemical energy that they are able to sustainably extract from the external environment. In this regard, Gumilyov identified three individual types: "harmonious people" who have enough energy to adapt to the world around them; "subpassionaries", who, being unable to maintain a domestic order, live in pursuit of momentary pleasures; and "passionaries", possessing an excess of biochemical energy. They turn this excess into activity aimed at the creative reconstruction of reality.
To the greatest extent, the unity of the ethnos is expressed in the commonality of fundamental stereotypes of behavior. The grounds for uniting into ethnic groups can be different, from the common language, religion, culture and nationality, to the unity of the territory, etc., in connection with which several classifications of ethnic groups:
1) territorial-state, which is based on a geographical criterion;
2) linguistic. However, there are a variety of correlations of languages ​​and peoples. So the Jews in the Diaspora began to speak the languages ​​of other peoples, retaining, nevertheless, their own written language. English language, became the language of other ethnic groups (Australians, New Zealanders, Americans, etc.). Serbo-Croatian is the native language of several peoples (Croats, Serbs, Montenegrins). But there are peoples who use several languages ​​at the same time: the Luxembourgers (Letzemburgish, French and German), the Swiss (German and French);
3) based on the characteristics of economic activity and culture.
Along with ethnic groups, there are economic and cultural types population and historical and cultural areas when different peoples living in similar natural conditions, coincidences are observed. The structure of ethnic groups is diverse and can include both different tribes and sub-ethnic groups(for Russians - Pomors, Cossacks, Old Believers, etc.) and social and legal corporations. Superethnoi include entire regions ("West", "World of Islam", etc.).
In relations between peoples are possible:
Symbiosis(from the Greek "symbiosis" - living together) - the coexistence of different organisms or peoples. New peoples and nations can be formed by spontaneous mixing of various ethnic groups (Latin American peoples).
Assimilation(from Latin assimilatio - assimilation) - the merger of ethnic groups, in which one of them acquires a foreign culture and loses its own (ethnic absorption). Assimilation happens natural(with long cultural contacts and interethnic marriages) and violent(suppression of the development of the language and culture of the ethnic minority).
Diaspora(Greek "scattering") - a large group of people, territorially separated from their people, existing quite autonomously, not mixing with other peoples.
Nations are not only born, but also die, mainly due to political reasons. In the territory of Eastern Europe disappeared, assimilated such peoples as the Bulgarians (an ancient Turkic people), Polovtsy, etc. The Tasmanians were completely destroyed, the Ubykhs disappeared - the Caucasian people, who were exiled to Turkey. There are wandering peoples, however, mostly under duress: Irish, Jews, Armenians, Gypsies (self-designation Roma , in the X century. came out of India), Kurds. There are also ethnic groups that have survived for more than 2 thousand years: Greeks, Armenians, Chinese, Jews, Eskimos.

6. The concept of the nation and its modern content

In Europe in the XIII-XVI centuries. ethnic groups of the modern type began to form - the nation. They arise on the basis of nationalities in the era of capitalism as the highest type of ethnos. The Western European concept of "nation" was formed in the Renaissance. Nation is a historically stable community of people, arising as a result of the unity of state, territorial, economic, social and cultural life. The economic basis of the existence of the nation is characterized by the presence of a national market, which overcomes the fragmentation and isolation of local markets. The people as an ethnic category becomes a nation, only realizing their individuality, a living place in the universal human family. You can also talk about sense of ethnicity, which is characteristic of the clan, tribe and nationality. national culture Folklore, certain customs and beliefs are characteristic. National identity is the highest form of ethnohistorical community of people. If the feeling of ethnicity expresses unconscious unity, then national self-consciousness expresses the conscious self-identification of the nation. The strength and intensity of national self-identification can be related to language, traditions, customs, beliefs, lifestyle, etc.
In the modern sense of the word, a nation is an autonomous community, often not limited by territorial boundaries, whose members are committed to common values ​​and institutions. Representatives of one nation may no longer have a common ancestor and common origin, although the nationality uniting them was formed thanks to common history, language and culture. Passing evolution from a tribe and nationality to a nation, biological features decrease in the community of people and socio-political and even spiritual ones begin to predominate. If the commonality of the territory was originally one of the main factors in the formation of a nation (English and American), then in the modern world it is no longer so much a territory as a common communicative integrity. Nation- this is a "speaking being", a linguistic community. The national language rises above dialects and jargons, gets its consolidation and development in literature. However, in the modern world there are facts when different nations speak the same language (English - the British and Americans) and vice versa, within the same nation there are several languages ​​(Switzerland is a nation without linguistic unity). The question of the unity of language is extremely important for the life of the nation, and yet it does not determine its existence: the Swiss nation speaks three languages; Jews leaving for their newfound homeland learn Hebrew again. Russian emigrants in the second and third generation sometimes barely speak mother tongue, but consider themselves Russian and yearn for their native land. On the basis of the common territory, economic life and language, a common culture and mentality of the nation is formed. mentality- these are special stereotypes and attitudes of people's thinking.
The traditionally singled out features of a nation (common economy, territory, language, and "psychic make-up") are clearly insufficient and limited. The example of the Gypsies and Jews has shown that it is possible to recognize oneself as a nation without having either its own territory, or a common economy, and so on. Anthropologists believe that the word "nation" characterizes not so much belonging to certain people how much to the state. This confirms that such names as Indians, Indonesians, Filipinos, Americans do not mean ethnic groups, but a set of citizens. certain country. African Americans, perhaps, constitute an independent people in the United States, not mixing with representatives of other peoples of the nation. However, both national and ethnic territory should not be identified with state borders (although they often coincide, or tend to do so). It also happens that two states represent one nation (North and South Korea, Russia and Belarus (according to a certain opinion), previously divided Vietnam and Yemen), but these divisions are overcome. Can a nation exist without being a state? A multinational state is possible, but the loss of state independence does not automatically lead to the death of a nation. The main thing in the problem of the nation is self-consciousness. It is possible to create a multinational state (Russia), in which the rights and freedoms of each nationality are respected. At the same time, several languages ​​can be state languages ​​(Belgium, Switzerland), and cultural pluralism can exist. Thus, in the USA, the place of the "melting pot", in which all national differences are erased, comes the idea of ​​an ethnic "salad". Cultural pluralism is sometimes seen as the successful adaptation of an individual to a foreign culture without abandoning one's own.
If in Western science the concept of a political nation is developed, then in Russia it is, first of all, a spiritual education. "The essence of any nationality," wrote V. G. Belinsky, "consists in its substance. Substance is that imperishable and eternal in the spirit of the people, which, without changing itself, endures all changes, passes through all forms of historical development holistically and unscathed" 2 . The main feature of a modern nation is the unity of culture, understood as a system of values. A nation is a community of sacred things. For Berdyaev, neither race, nor territory, nor language, nor religion are signs that define a nation, although they all play one role or another in its formation. A nation is a complex historical formation that arises as a result of a mixture of races and tribes, many redistributions of lands with which it connects its fate in the course of a cultural process that creates its unique spiritual face. As a result of all historical and psychological research, "an indecomposable and elusive remnant remains, in which lies the whole secret of national individuality" 3 . Russia stands in the way of creating a single nation. Its future existence depends on the implementation of this task. The formation of a single national consciousness, a national culture is facilitated by mass education, which has become a national phenomenon since the 19th century. in developed countries a powerful mechanism of national integration.
In relations between peoples, no discrimination as an exception or preference based on gender, race, religion, political opinions, nationality or social origin, and resulting in the elimination or violation of the equality of legal opportunities for a person and a citizen in various areas of his public and private life.
Discrimination can arise due to group selfishness, which can be attributed ethnocentrism as a property of ethnic self-consciousness, which considers everything from the point of view of the values ​​of its own ethnic group. From the point of view of sociology, ethnocentrism can be functionally expedient, since it contributes to the stability of the community, its development. But under certain conditions, it becomes dysfunctional. As soon as people begin to be distinguished by blood, as far as rights are concerned, this is the beginning of inhumanity. Ethnocentrism is the result of prejudice, incorrect, distorted ideas of one nation in relation to another. Racial and national intolerance is an everyday variety of ethnocentrism. In democratic countries, the rights of national minorities are equal to the rights of the indigenous people. Every nation, like a person, is unique.
Xenophobia - this is fear and hatred towards another race, people, culture.
Both apartheid and genocide can flow from racism.
Apartheid is a policy of racial separation and discrimination. In the most severe form, it was carried out in the Republic of South Africa against Africans and Indians in the 20th century. The white racists of this country deprived the indigenous population of any rights, isolated it, staged mass repressions.
Genocide (from Greek genos and lat. caedere to kill) is the extermination of certain groups of the population based on racial, national, religious, political and other motives. Genocide is the gravest crime against man and mankind, because the culture of each nation is unique.
History knows more than one example of the genocide of entire nations. However, the 20th century surpassed all times in this crime (two bloody world wars and the atrocities of totalitarian regimes). The Nazis carried out genocide against a number of peoples, in the war unleashed by them, about 50 million people died. Russians, Ukrainians, Poles, Byelorussians, Yugoslavs and the Germans were especially affected. With regard to the Jews, the Nazis carried out total genocide, barbarously destroying not only men, but also children, women and the elderly.
In the XX century. there were two major genocides on a purely national basis: Armenians in Turkey in 1915 and the Holocaust (eng. "burnt offering") - the destruction of Jews by the Nazis in World War II, when 6 million Jews died (more than 1/3 of the total number) .
Stalinism, in contrast to fascism, which destroyed other peoples, fell upon its own country, arranging the genocide of the peoples inhabiting it. He introduced the institution of hostages, organized concentration camps, used extrajudicial mass repressions, carried out the eviction of entire peoples. The genocide was also expressed in the destruction of the historical memory of peoples, monuments of history and culture, the nullification of freedom of conscience and religion, the complete stifling of freedom of speech, thought and intellectual search.
Already at the beginning of the 21st century, events took place in Kosovo that can also be called genocide, when hundreds of thousands of Serbs were expelled from their lands, their historical and cultural monuments were barbarously destroyed and desecrated. Regarding interethnic relations in modern times, we can say that the world has gone crazy ...